Works Cited

1. Global Drug Survey: GDS2020 Key Findings Report: Executive Summary. Available at https://www.globaldrugsurvey.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GDS2020-Executive-Summary.pdf. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

2. Ben Amar M. Cannabinoids in medicine: a review of their therapeutic potential. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;105(1-2):1-25.

3. H-art CL. Increasing treatment options for cannabis dependence: a review of potential pharmacotherapies. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;80(2):147-159.

4. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt29393/2019NSDUHFFRPDFWHTML/2019NSDUHFFR1PDFW090120.pdf. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

5. DISA. Map of Marijuana Legality by State. Available at https://disa.com/map-of-marijuana-legality-by-state. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

6. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2013.

7. Hubbard JR, Franco SE, Onaivi ES. Marijuana: medical implications. Am Fam Physician. 1999;60(9):2583-2588, 2593.

8. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2019 NSDUH Detailed Tables. National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2019-nsduh-detailed-tables. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

9. Hasin DS, Saha TD, Kerridge BT, et al. Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(12):1235-1242.

10. Grucza RA, Agrawal A, Krauss M, et al. Declining prevalence of marijuana use disorders among adolescents in the United States, 2002 to 2013. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;55(6):487-494.

11. Hasin DS, Kerridge BT, Saha TD, et al. Prevalence and correlates of the DSM-5 cannabis use disorder, 2012–2013: findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(6):588-599.

12. Lopez-Quintero C, Pérez de los Cobos J, Hasin DS, et al. Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;115(1-2):120-130.

13. McArdle PA. Cannabis use by children and young people. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(8):692-695.

14. Flórez-Salamanca L, Secades-Villa R, Hasin DS, et al. Probability and predictors of transition from abuse to dependence on alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013;39(3):168-179.

15. Terry-McElrath YM, O'Malley PM, Patrick ME, Miech RA. Risk is still relevant: time-varying associations between perceived risk and marijuana use among US 12th grade students from 1991-2016. Addict Behav. 2017;74:13-19.

16. National Hospital Care Survey. Emergency Department Visits for Substance Abuse. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhcs/ED_Substance_Abuse_Factsheet.PDF. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

17. Gates PJ, Sabioni P, Copeland J, Le Foll B, Gowling L. Psychosocial interventions for cannabis use disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(5):CD005336.

18. van der Pol P, Liebregts N, de Graaf R, Korf DJ, van den Brink W, van Laar M. Facilitators and barriers in treatment seeking for cannabis dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133(2):776-780.

19. Kamon J, Budney A, Stanger C. A contingency management intervention for adolescent marijuana abuse and conduct problems.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(6):513-521.

20. Hayatbakhsh MR, Najman JM, Bor W, O'Callaghan MJ, Williams GM. Multiple risk factor model predicting cannabis use and use disorders: a longitudinal study. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2009;35(6):399-407.

21. Sartor CE, Agrawal A, Grant JD, et al. Differences between African-American and European-American women in the association of childhood sexual abuse with initiation of marijuana use and progression to problem use. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2015;76(4):569-577.

22. Farmer RF, Seeley JR, Kosty DB, et al. Internalizing and externalizing psychopathology as predictors of cannabis use disorder onset during adolescence and early adulthood. Psychol Addict Behav. 2015;29(3):541-51.

23. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT, Madden PA. Early reactions to cannabis predict later dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(10):1033-1039.

24. de Wit H, Phillips TJ. Do initial responses to drugs predict future use or abuse? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36(6):1565-1576.

25. Agosti V, Levin FR. Predictors of cannabis dependence recovery among epidemiological survey respondents in the United States. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2007;33(1):81-88.

26. Pollard MS, Tucker JS, de la Haye K, Green HD, Kennedy DP. A prospective study of marijuana use change and cessation among adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;144:134-140.

27. Rooke SE, Norberg MM, Copeland J. Successful and unsuccessful cannabis quitters: comparing group characteristics and quitting strategies. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2011;6:30.

28. Bostwick MJ. Blurred boundaries: the therapeutics and politics of medical marijuana. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(2):172-186.

29. Verweij KJ, Zietsch BP, Lynskey MT, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on cannabis use initiation and problematic use: a meta-analysis of twin studies. Addiction. 2010;105(3):417-430.

30. Kendler KS, Jacobson KC, Prescott CA, Neale MC. Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(4):687-695.

31. Carroll KM, Easton CJ, Nich C, et al. The use of contingency management and motivational/skills-building therapy to treat young adults with marijuana dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(5):955-966.

32. Califano JA Jr. The Grass Roots of Teen Drug Abuse. Available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB922395791456485764. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

33. Secades-Villa R, Garcia-Rodríguez O, Jin CJ, Wang S, Blanco C. Probability and predictors of the cannabis gateway effect: a national study. Int J Drug Policy. 2015;26(2):135-142.

34. De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Moriello AS, et al. Effects of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-enriched Cannabis extracts on TRP channels and endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(2):1479-1494.

35. Grotenhermen F, Russo E (eds). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Binghampton, NY: The Hathworth Press; 2002.

36. Schubart CD, Sommer IE, van Gastel WA, Goetgebuer RL, Kahn RS, Boks MP. Cannabis with high cannabidiol content is associated with fewer psychotic experiences. Schizophr Res. 2011;130(1-3):216-221.

37. Crippa JA, Derenusson GN, Ferrari TB, et al. Neural basis of anxiolytic effects of cannabidiol (CBD) in generalized social anxiety disorder: a preliminary report. J Psychopharmacol. 2011;25(1):121-130.

38. Niesink RJ, van Laar MW. Does cannabidiol protect against adverse psychological effects of THC? Front Psychiatry. 2013;4:130.

39. Fine PG, Rosenfeld MJ. The endocannabinoid system, cannabinoids, and pain. Rambam Maimonides Med J. 2013;4(4):e0022.

40. National Cancer Institute. Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Available at https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/cannabis-pdq. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

41. Ashton CH. Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;178:101-106.

42. Schauer GL, King BA, Bunnell RE, et al. Toking, vaping, and eating for health or fun: marijuana use patterns in adults, U.S., 2014. Am J Prev. 2016;50(1):1-8.

43. Abrams DI, Vizoso HP, Shade SB, Jay C, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL. Vaporization as a smokeless cannabis delivery system: a pilot study. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007;82(5):572-578.

44. Cascini F, Aiello C, Di Tanna G. Increasing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC) content in herbal cannabis over time: systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2012;5(1):32-40.

45. Ashton CH. Adverse effects of cannabis and cannabinoids. Br J Anaesth. 1999;83(4):637-649.

46. Aggarwal SK. Cannabinergic pain medicine: a concise clinical primer and survey of randomized-controlled trial results. Clin J Pain. 2013;29(2):162-171.

47. McPartland JM. The endocannabinoid system: an osteopathic perspective. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2008;108(10):586-600.

48. Mallat A, Teixeira-Clerc F, Deveaux V, et al. The endocannabinoid system as a key mediator during liver diseases: new insights and therapeutic openings. British Journal of Pharmacology. 2011;163(7):1432-1440.

49. Russo EB. Cannabinoids in the management of difficult to treat pain. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 2008;4(1):245-259.

50. Grotenhermen F. Review of therapeutic effects. In: Grotenhermen F, Russo E (eds). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. New York, NY: Routledge; 2002: 123-142.

51. Hurley W, Mazor S. Anticipated medical effects on children from legalization of marijuana in Colorado and Washington State: a poison center perspective. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(7):602-603.

52. Wang GS, Roosevelt G, Le Lait MC, et al. Association of unintentional pediatric exposures with decriminalization of marijuana in the United States. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;63(6):684-689.

53. Onders B, Casavant MJ, Spiller HA, Chounthirath T, Smith GA. Marijuana exposure among children younger than six years in the United States. Clin Pediatr. 2016;55(5):428-436.

54. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. Monitoring Health Concerns Related to Marijuana in Colorado: 2014. Available at https://drthurstone.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Monitoring-Health-Concerns-Related-to-Marijuana-in-Colorado-2014.pdf. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

55. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2017.

56. Hirvonen J, Goodwin RS, Li CT, et al. Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers. Mol Psychiatry. 2012;17(6):642-649.

57. Todaro B. Cannabinoids in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2012;10(4):487-492.

58. Robson P. Therapeutic aspects of cannabis and cannabinoids. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;178:107-115.

59. ProCon.org. Legal Medical Marijuana States and DC. Available at https://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/legal-medical-marijuana-states-and-dc/. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

60. Schatman M. Medical Marijuana: The Imperative of Educating Physicians. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/810356. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

61. Bostwick JM, Reisfield GM, DuPont RL. Clinical decisions: medicinal use of marijuana. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(9):866-868.

62. Parker LA, Rock E, Limebeer C. Regulation of nausea and vomiting by cannabinoids. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(7):1411-1422.

63. Machado Rocha FC, Stéfano SC, De Cássia Haiek R, et al. Therapeutic use of Cannabis sativa on chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting among cancer patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer Care(Engl). 2008;17(5):431-443.

64. Berlach DM, Shir Y, Ware MA. Experience with the synthetic cannabinoid nabilone in chronic noncancer pain. Pain Med. 2006;7(1):25-29.

65. Burns TL, Ineck JR. Cannabinoid analgesia as a potential new therapeutic option in the treatment of chronic pain. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(2):251-260.

66. Noyes R Jr, Brunk SF, Avery DA, Canter AC. The analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1975;18(1):84-89.

67. Johnson JR, Burnell-Nugent M, Lossignol D, Ganae-Motan ED, Potts R, Fallon MT. Multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2010;39(2):167-179.

68. Portenoy RK, Ganae-Motan ED, Allende S, et al. Nabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trial. J Pain. 2012;13(5):438-449.

69. Cooper ZD, Abrama D. Considering abuse liability and neurocognitive effects of cannabis and cannabis-derived products when assessing analgesic efficacy: a comprehensive review of randomized-controlled studies. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2019;45(6): 580-595.

70. Graham LA. Management of spasticity revisited. Age Ageing. 2013;42(4):435-441.

71. Collin C, Davies P, Mutiboko IK, Ratcliffe S. Sativex spasticity in MS study group: randomised controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol. 2007;14(3):290-296.

72. LexiComp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com/lco/action/login. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

73. Baker D, Pryce G, Jackson SJ, Bolton C, Giovannoni G. The biology that underpins the therapeutic potential of cannabis-based medicines for the control of spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis Related Disord. 2012;1(2):64-75.

74. Corey-Bloom J, Wolfson T, Gamst A, et al. Smoked cannabis for spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. CMAJ. 2012;184(10):1143-1150.

75. da Rovare VP, Magalhães GPA, Jardini GDA, et al. Cannabinoids for spasticity due to multiple sclerosis or paraplegia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Complement Ther Med. 2017;34:170-185.

76. Haney M, Gunderson EW, Rabkin J, et al. Dronabinol and marijuana in HIV-positive marijuana smokers: caloric intake, mood, and sleep. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45(5):545-554.

77. Prentiss D, Power R, Balmas G, et al. Patterns of marijuana use among patients with HIV/AIDS followed in a public health care setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35(1):38-45.

78. Guzmán M. Cannabinoids: potential anticancer agents. Nat Rev Cancer. 2003;3(10):745-755.

79. Pergam SA, Woodfield MC, Lee CM, et al. Cannabis use among patients at a comprehensive cancer center in a state with legalized medicinal and recreational use. Cancer. 2017;123(22):4488-4497.

80. Guzmán M. Phytocannabinoids as Potential Anticancer Agents [Abstract]. Available at http://www.cannabis-med.org/meeting/Cologne2013/reader.pdf. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

81. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Drug Comprised of an Active Ingredient Derived from Marijuana to Treat Rare, Severe Forms of Epilepsy. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-drug-comprised-active-ingredient-derived-marijuana-treat-rare-severe-forms. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

82. Marijuana Policy Project. Medical Conditions Handout. Available at https://www.mpp.org/issues/medical-marijuana/medical-conditions-handout. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

83. Lattanzi S, Brigo F, Trinka E, et al. Efficacy and safety of cannabidiol in epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drugs. 2018;78(17):1791-1804.

84. Pratt M, Stevens A, Thuku M, et al. Benefits and harms of medical cannabis: a scoping review of systematic reviews. Syst Rev. 2019;8:320.

85. Hauser W, Petzke F, Fitzcharles MA. Efficacy, tolerability and safety of cannabis-based medicines for chronic pain management: an overview of systematic reviews. Eur J Pain. 2018;22(3):55-470.

86. Iversen L. Cannabis and the brain. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 6):1252-1270.

87. Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SR. Adverse health effects of marijuana use. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(23):2219-2227.

88. Goncalves J, Rosado T, Soares S, et al. Cannabis and its secondary metabolites: their use as therapeutic drugs, toxicological aspects, and analytical determination. Medicines (Basel). 2019;6(1):31.

89. Smith PH, Homish GG, Leonard KE, Collins RL. Marijuana withdrawal and aggression among a representative sample of U.S. marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132(1-2):63-68.

90. Johns A. Psychiatric effects of cannabis. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;178:116-122.

91. De Aquino JP, Sherif M, Radhakrishnan R, Cahill JD, Ranganathan M, D'Souza DC. The psychiatric consequences of cannabinoids. Clin Ther. 2018;40(9):1448-1456.

92. Aldington S, Williams M, Nowitz M, et al. Effects of cannabis on pulmonary structure, function, and symptoms. Thorax. 2007;62(12):1058-1063.

93. Melamede R. Cannabis and tobacco smoke are not equally carcinogenic. Harm Reduction J. 2005;2:21.

94. Callaghan RC, Allebeck P, Sidorchuk A. Marijuana use and risk of lung cancer: a 40-year cohort study. Cancer Causes Control. 2013;24(10):1811-1820.

95. Zhang LR, Morgenstern H, Greenland S, et al. Cannabis smoking and lung cancer risk: pooled analysis in the International Lung Cancer Consortium. Int J Cancer. 2015;136(4):894-903.

96. Alvarez S. Do some addictions interfere with fertility? Fertil Steril. 2015;103(1):22-26.

97. Warner TD, Roussos-Ross D, Behnke M. It's not your mother's marijuana: effects on maternal-fetal health and the developing child. Clin Perinatol. 2014;41(4):877-894.

98. Silins E, Horwood LJ, Patton GC, et al. Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: an integrative analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1(4):286-293.

99. McInnis OA, Plecas D. Clearing the Smoke on Cannabis: Highlights: An Update. Available at https://www.ccsa.ca/sites/default/files/2019-10/CCSA-Clearing-Smoke-on-Cannabis-Highlights-2019-en.pdf. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

100. Meier M H, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012;109(40):E2657-E2664.

101. Cousijn J, Wiers RW, Ridderinkhof KR, van den Brink W, Veltman DJ, Goudriaan AE. Grey matter alterations associated with cannabis use: results of a VBM study in heavy cannabis users and healthy controls. Neuroimage. 2012;59(4):3845-3851.

102. Filbeya FM, Aslana S, Calhoun VD. Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. PNAS. 2014;111(47):16913-16918.

103. Scott JC, Slomiak ST, Jones JD, et al. Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: a systemic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(6):585-595.

104. Ashton CH, Moore PB. Endocannabinoid system dysfunction in mood and related disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2011;124(4): 250-261.

105. Lev-Ran S, Roerecke M, Le Foll B, George TP, McKenzie K, Rehm J. The association between cannabis use and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol Med. 2014;44(4):797-810.

106. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression. Addiction. 2003;98(11): 1493-1504.

107. Hall W. Dissecting the causal anatomy of the link between cannabis and other illicit drugs. Addiction. 2006;101(4):472-473, 474-476.

108. Burns JK. Pathways from cannabis to psychosis: a review of the evidence. Front Psychiatry. 2013;4:128.

109. Hanna RC, Shalvoy A, Cullum CM, et al. Cognitive function in individuals with psychosis: moderation by adolescent cannabis use. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(6):1496-1503.

110. Di Forti M, Morgan C, Dazzan P, et al. High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(6):488-491.

111. D'Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29(8):1558-1572.

112. Burgdorf JR, Kilmer B, Pacula RL. Heterogeneity in the composition of marijuana seized in California. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;117(1):59-61.

113. Leweke FM, Schneider U, Radwan M, Schmidt E, Emrich HM. Different effects of nabilone and cannabidiol on binocular depth inversion in Man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2000;66(1):175-181.

114. Lac A, Luk JW. Testing the Amotivational syndrome: marijuana use longitudinally predicts lower self-efficacy even after controlling for demographics, personality, and alcohol and cigarette use. Prev Sci. 2018;19(2):117-126.

115. Cougle JR, Hakes JK, Macatee RJ, Chavarria J, Zvolensky MJ. Quality of life and risk of psychiatric disorders among regular users of alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis: an analysis of the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). J Psychiatr Res. 2015;66-67:135-141.

116. Butterworth P, Slade T, Degenhardt L. Factors associated with the timing and onset of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder: results from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2014;33(5):555-564.

117. Dannon PN, Lowengrub K, Amiaz R, Grunhaus L, Kotler M. Comorbid cannabis use and panic disorder: short-term and long-term follow-up study. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2004;19(2):97-101.

118. Bergamaschi MM, Queiroz RH, Chagas MH, et al. Cannabidiol reduces the anxiety induced by simulated public speaking in treatment-naïve social phobia patients. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011;36(6):1219-1226.

119. Simonetto DA, Oxentenko AS, Herman ML, Szostek JH. Cannabinoid hyperemesis: a case series of 98 patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(2):114-119.

120. Kim HS, Anderson JD, Saghafi O, Heard KJ, Monte AA. Cyclic vomiting presentations following marijuana liberalization in Colorado. Acad Emerg Med. 2015;22(6):694-699.

121. Price SL, Fisher C, Kumar R, Hilgerson A. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome as the underlying cause of intractable nausea and vomiting. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2011;111(3):166-169.

122. Kouri EM, Pope HG Jr, Lukas SE. Changes in aggressive behavior during withdrawal from long-term marijuana use. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999;143(3):302-308.

123. Haney M. The marijuana withdrawal syndrome: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2005;7(5):360-366.

124. Gorelick DA, Levin KH, Copersino ML, et al. Diagnostic criteria for cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;123(1-3):141-147.

125. Budney AJ, Hughes JR, Moore BA, Vandrey R. Review of the validity and significance of cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161(11):1967-1977.

126. Dawes MA, Liguori A, Dougherty DM. Cannabis withdrawal among adolescent cannabis users in an outpatient research setting. Am J Addict. 2006;15(6):485-486.

127. Hesse M, Thylstrup B. Time-course of the DSM-5 cannabis withdrawal symptoms in poly-substance abusers. BMC Psychiatry. 2013;13:258.

128. Chesney T, Matsos L, Couturier J, Johnson N. Cannabis withdrawal syndrome: an important diagnostic consideration in adolescents presenting with disordered eating. Int J Eat Disord. 2014;47(2):219-223.

129. Crippa JAS, Hallak JE, Machado-de-Sousa JP, et al. Cannabidiol for the treatment of cannabis withdrawal syndrome: a case report. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2013;38(2):162-164.

130. Allsop DJ, Copeland J, Lintzeris N, et al. Nabiximols as an agonist replacement therapy during cannabis withdrawal: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(3):281-291.

131. Dumont GJH. Nabiximols as a substitute for cannabis. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2020;164:D4578.

132. Lintzeris N, Bhardwaj A, Mills L, et al. Nabiximols for the treatment of cannabis dependence: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(9):1242-1253.

133. Werneck MA, Kortas GT, de Andrade AG, Castaldelli-Maia JM. A systematic review of the efficacy of cannabinoid agonist replacement therapy for cannabis withdrawal symptoms. CNS Drugs. 2018;32(12):1113-1129.

134. Babor TF. Brief treatments for cannabis dependence: findings from a randomized multisite trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72(3):455-466.

135. McRae AL, Budney AJ, Brady KT. Treatment of marijuana dependence: a review of the literature. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2003;24(4):369-376.

136. Miller NS, Gold MS, Pottash AC. A 12-step treatment approach for marijuana (Cannabis) dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1989;6(4):241-250.

137. Nielsen S, Gowing L, Sabioni P, Le Foll B. Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;1(1):CD008940.

138. Ghosh A, Basu D. Cannabis and psychopathology: the meandering journey of the last decade. Indian J Psychiatry. 2015;57(2): 140-149.

139. Balter RE, Cooper ZD, Haney M. Novel pharmacologic approaches to treating cannabis use disorder. Curr Addict Rep. 2014;1(2):137-143.

140. Penetar DM, Looby AR, Ryan ET, Maywalt MA, Lukas SE. Bupropion reduces some of the symptoms of marihuana withdrawal in chronic marihuana users: a pilot study. Subst Abuse. 2012;6:63-71.

141. Carpenter KM, McDowell D, Brooks DJ, Cheng WY, Levin FR. A preliminary trial: double-blind comparison of nefazodone, bupropion-SR, and placebo in the treatment of cannabis dependence. Am J Addict. 2009;18(1):53-64.

142. Haney M, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, et al. Marijuana withdrawal in humans: effects of oral THC or divalproex. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29(1):158-170.

143. Bonnet U, Preuss UW. The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2017;8:9-37.

144. Mason BJ, Crean R, Goodell V, et al. A proof-of-concept randomized controlled study of gabapentin: effects on cannabis use, withdrawal and executive function deficits in cannabis-dependent adults. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(7):1689-1698.

145. Martinez D, Trifilieff P. A Review of Potential Pharmacological Treatments for Cannabis Abuse. Available at https://www. asam.org/resources/publications/magazine/read/article/2015/04/13/a-review-of-potential-pharmacological-treatments-for-cannabis-abuse. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

146. Levin FR, Mariani JJ, Pavlicova M, et al. Dronabinol and lofexidine for cannabis use disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Dep. 2016;159:53-60.

147. Bedi G, Cooper ZD, Haney M. Subjective, cognitive and cardiovascular dose-effect profile of nabilone and dronabinol in marijuana smokers. Addict Biol. 2013;18(5):872-881.

148. Haney M, Cooper ZD, Bedi G, Vosburg SK, Comer SD, Foltin RW. Nabilone decreases marijuana withdrawal and a laboratory measure of marijuana relapse. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(8):1557-1565.

149. Herrmann ES, Cooper ZD, Bedi G, et al. Effects of zolpidem alone and in combination with nabilone on cannabis withdrawal and a laboratory model of relapse in cannabis users. Psychopharmacol. 2016;233:2469-2478.

150. Levin FR, McDowell D, Evans SM, et al. Pharmacotherapy for marijuana dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of divalproex sodium. Am J Addict. 2004;13(1):21-32.

151. Balter RE, Cooper ZD, Haney M. Novel pharmacologic approaches to treating cannabis use disorder. Curr Addict Rep. 2014;1(2):137-143.

152. Haney M, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, et al. Effects of baclofen and mirtazapine on a laboratory model of marijuana withdrawal and relapse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2010;211(2):233-244.

153. Gray KM, Carpenter MJ, Baker NL, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine in cannabis-dependent adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(8):805-812.

154. Gray KM, Sonne SC, McClure EA, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine for cannabis use disorder in adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;177:249-257.

155. Schnell T, Koethe D, Krasnianski A, et al. Ziprasidone versus clozapine in the treatment of dually diagnosed (DD) patients with schizophrenia and cannabis use disorders: a randomized study. Am J Addict. 2014;23(3):308-312.

156. Kelly MA, Levin FR. Treatment of cannabis use disorder. In: Galanter M, Kleber HD, Brady KT (eds). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2015.

157. Kaminer Y, Burleson JA, Burke R, Litt MD. The efficacy of contingency management for adolescent cannabis use disorder: a controlled study. Subst Abus. 2014;35(4):391-398.

158. Stephens RS, Roffman RA, Curtin L. Comparison of extended versus brief treatments for marijuana use. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(5):898-908.

159. Budney AJ, Moore BA, Rocha HL, Higgins ST. Clinical trial of abstinence-based vouchers and cognitive-behavioral therapy for cannabis dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(2):307-316.

160. Walker DD, Roffman RA, Stephens RS, Wakana K, Berghuis J, Kim W. Motivational enhancement therapy for adolescent marijuana users: a preliminary randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(3):628-632.

161. Barrowclough C, Haddock G, Wykes T, et al. Integrated motivational interviewing and cognitive behavioural therapy for people with psychosis and comorbid substance misuse: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2010;341:c6325.

162. Baker AL, Hides L, Lubman DI. Treatment of cannabis use among people with psychotic or depressive disorders: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(3):247-254.

163. Baker AL, Thornton LK, Hides L, Dunlop A. Treatment of cannabis use among people with psychotic disorders: a critical review of randomised controlled trials. Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18(32):4923-4937.

164. Humphreys K, Wing S, McCarty D, et al. Self-help organizations for alcohol and drug problems: toward evidence-based practice and policy. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2004;26(3):151-165.

165. Kranzler HR, Koob G, Gastfriend DR, Swift RM, Willenbring ML. Advances in the pharmacotherapy of alcoholism: challenging misconceptions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006;30(2):272-281.

166. Christo G, Franey C. Drug users' spiritual beliefs, locus of control and the disease concept in relation to Narcotics Anonymous attendance and six-month outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;38(1):51-56.

167. Christo G, Sutton S. Anxiety and self-esteem as a function of abstinence time among recovering addicts attending Narcotics Anonymous. Br J Clin Psychol. 1994;33(Pt 2):198-200.

168. Crape BL, Latkin CA, Laris AS, Knowlton AR. The effects of sponsorship in 12-step treatment of injection drug users.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;65(3):291-301.

169. Jalali R, Moradi A, Dehghan F, Merzai S, Alikhani M. The exploration of factors related to treatment retention in Narcotics Anonymous members: a qualitative study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2019;14(1):14.

170. Marijuana Anonymous. Available at https://www.marijuana-anonymous.org. Last accessed July 2, 2021.

171. Bonn-Millera MO, Zvolensky MJ, Moos RH. 12-step self-help group participation as a predictor of marijuana abstinence.Addiction Res Theory. 2011;19(1):76-84.

172. Laudet AB. Attitudes and beliefs about 12-step groups among addiction treatment clients and clinicians: toward identifying obstacles to participation. Subst Use Misuse. 2003;38(14):2017-2047.

173. Moore BA, Budney AJ. Relapse in outpatient treatment for marijuana dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2003;25(2):85-89.

174. Nguyen VH, Harley KG. Prenatal cannabis use and infant birth outcomes in the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System. J Pediatr. 2022;240:87-93.

175. Meier MH, Caspi A, Knodt AR, et al. Long-term cannabis use and cognitive reserves and hippocampal volume in midlife. Am J Psychiatry. 2022;179(5):362-374.

Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations

1. Fischer B, Russell C, Sabioni P, et al. Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines: A Comprehensive Update of Evidence and Recommendations. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(8):e1-e12. Available at https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303818. Last accessed July 12, 2021.

2. Yadav V, Bever C, Bowen J, et al. Summary of evidence-based guideline: complementary and alternative medicine in multiple sclerosis: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2014;82(12):1083-1092. Summary retrieved from https://www.aan.com/Guidelines/home/GetGuidelineContent/651. Last accessed July 12, 2021.


Copyright © 2021 NetCE, PO Box 997571, Sacramento, CA 95899-7571
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.