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Course #51604-
| A) | non-prescribing. | ||
| B) | inadequate prescribing. | ||
| C) | continued prescribing despite evidence of ineffectiveness of opioids. | ||
| D) | All of the above |
Inappropriate opioid analgesic prescribing for pain is defined as the non-prescribing, inadequate prescribing, excessive prescribing, or continued prescribing despite evidence of ineffectiveness of opioids [1]. Appropriate opioid prescribing is essential to achieve pain control; to minimize patient risk of abuse, addiction, and fatal toxicity; and to minimize societal harms from diversion. The foundation of appropriate opioid prescribing is thorough patient assessment, treatment planning, and follow-up and monitoring. Essential for proper patient assessment and treatment planning is comprehension of the clinical concepts of opioid abuse and addiction, their behavioral manifestations in pain patients, and how these potentially problematic behavioral responses to opioids both resemble and differ from physical dependence and pseudo-dependence. Prescriber knowledge deficit has been identified as a key obstacle to appropriate opioid prescribing and, along with gaps in policy, treatment, attitudes, and research, contributes to widespread inadequate treatment of pain [2]. A 2023 meta-analysis of studies conducted in Canada and the United States found that healthcare providers were more comfortable prescribing opioids when [77]:
Patients were actively engaged in pain self-management
Clear institutional prescribing policies were present and prescription drug monitoring programs were used
Long-standing relationships and strong therapeutic alliance were present
Interprofessional supports were available
| A) | 20% | ||
| B) | 25% | ||
| C) | 40% | ||
| D) | 55% |
The current extent of opioid analgesic use in the United States is unprecedented in the country's history and unparalleled anywhere in the world. Before 1990, physicians in the United States were skeptical of prescribing opioids for chronic noncancer pain. In 2019, 22.1% of adults used a prescription opioid such as oxycodone and hydrocodone for chronic pain, and sales of opioid analgesics totaled approximately $7 billion in 2016 [65,71].
| A) | Low | ||
| B) | Medium | ||
| C) | High | ||
| D) | Severe |
RISK STRATIFICATION FOR PATIENTS PRESCRIBED OPIOIDS
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| HIV = human immunodeficiency syndrome, MRI = magnetic resonance imaging. |
| A) | consists of 5 items. | ||
| B) | is patient administered. | ||
| C) | diagnoses depression in the past month. | ||
| D) | assesses the likelihood of current substance abuse. |
The Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R) is a patient-administered, 24-item screen with questions addressing history of alcohol/substance use, psychologic status, mood, cravings, and stress. Like the ORT, the SOAPP-R helps assess risk level of aberrant drug-related behaviors and the appropriate extent of monitoring [23].
| A) | Analgesia | ||
| B) | Acceptance | ||
| C) | Affect (i.e., patient mood) | ||
| D) | Aberrant drug-related behaviors |
When implementing a chronic pain treatment plan that involves the use of opioids, the patient should be frequently reassessed for changes in pain origin, health, and function [1]. This can include input from family members and/or the state PDMP. During the initiation phase and during any changes to the dosage or agent used, patient contact should be increased. At every visit, chronic opioid response may be monitored according to the "5 A's" [1,28]:
Analgesia
Activities of daily living
Adverse or side effects
Aberrant drug-related behaviors
Affect (i.e., patient mood)
| A) | 6 to 12 weeks. | ||
| B) | 3 to 6 months. | ||
| C) | 6 to 12 months. | ||
| D) | 1 to 2 years. |
| A) | All unused opioids should be flushed down the toilet. | ||
| B) | Take all unused medications back to a physicians' office. | ||
| C) | Unused opioids can safely be redistributed to friends or family who need them. | ||
| D) | There are no universal recommendations for the proper disposal of unused opioids. |
There are no universal recommendations for the proper disposal of unused opioids, and patients are rarely advised of what to do with unused or expired medications [34]. According to the FDA, most medications that are no longer necessary or have expired should be removed from their containers, mixed with undesirable substances (e.g., cat litter, used coffee grounds), and put into an impermeable, nondescript container (e.g., disposable container with a lid or a sealed bag) before throwing in the trash [35]. Any personal information should be obscured or destroyed. The FDA recommends that certain medications, including oxycodone/acetaminophen (Percocet), oxycodone (OxyContin tablets), and transdermal fentanyl (Duragesic Transdermal System), be flushed down the toilet instead of thrown in the trash [35]. Patients should be advised to flush prescription drugs down the toilet only if the label or accompanying patient information specifically instructs doing so and no other safe disposal method is available. In addition, beginning in 2023, manufacturers of opioid analgesics dispensed in outpatient settings must make prepaid mail-back envelopes available to outpatient pharmacies and other dispensers as an additional opioid analgesic disposal option for patients [80].
| A) | Institutes of Medicine | ||
| B) | U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration | ||
| C) | Office of National Drug Control Policy | ||
| D) | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is responsible for formulating federal standards for the handling of controlled substances. In 2011, the DEA began requiring every state to implement electronic databases that track prescribing habits, referred to as PDMPs. Specific policies regarding controlled substances are administered at the state level [37].
| A) | Only licensees who specialize in the management of pain | ||
| B) | Licensed practical nurses whose patients are prescribed opioids | ||
| C) | Only physicians who prescribe Schedule I controlled substances and are licensed in West Virginia | ||
| D) | All licensees who dispense Schedule II, III, and IV controlled substances to residents of West Virginia |
In West Virginia, all licensees who dispense Schedule II, III, IV, and V controlled substances to residents of West Virginia must provide the dispensing information to the West Virginia Board of Pharmacy each 24-hour period through the Controlled Substances Monitoring Program (CSMP) [42]. This includes:
Physicians
Dentists
Veterinarians
Physician assistants
Advanced practice nurses
Other prescribers and dispensers
| A) | Asking for specific medications | ||
| B) | Injecting medications meant for oral use | ||
| C) | Reluctance to decrease opioid dosing once stable | ||
| D) | Stockpiling medications during times when pain is less severe |
In addition to aberrant urine screens, there are certain behaviors that are suggestive of an emerging opioid use disorder. The most suggestive behaviors are [33,46,47]:
Selling medications
Prescription forgery or alteration
Injecting medications meant for oral use
Obtaining medications from nonmedical sources
Resisting medication change despite worsening function or significant negative effects
Loss of control over alcohol use
Using illegal drugs or non-prescribed controlled substances
Recurrent episodes of:
Prescription loss or theft
Obtaining opioids from other providers in violation of a treatment agreement
Unsanctioned dose escalation
Running out of medication and requesting early refills
Behaviors with a lower level of evidence for their association with opioid misuse include [33,46,47]:
Aggressive demands for more drug
Asking for specific medications
Stockpiling medications during times when pain is less severe
Using pain medications to treat other symptoms
Reluctance to decrease opioid dosing once stable
In the earlier stages of treatment:
Increasing medication dosing without provider permission
Obtaining prescriptions from sources other than the pain provider
Sharing or borrowing similar medications from friends/family