Works Cited

1. Criner GJ, Barnette RE, D'Allonzo GE (eds). Critical Care Study Guide: Text and Review. 2nd ed. New York, NY; Springer; 2010.

2. Bragg C. Practical aspects of epidural and intrathecal narcotic analgesia in the intensive care setting. Heart Lung. 1989;18(6):599-608.

3. Sawhney M. Epidural analgesia: what nurses need to know. Nursing. 2012;42(8):36-41.

4. Bauer M, George III JE, Seif J, Farag E. Recent advances in epidural analgesia. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2012;309219:1-14.

5. Chumbley G, Thomas S. Care of the patient receiving epidural analgesia. Nurs Stand. 2010;25(9):35-40.

6. McCaffery M, Beebe A. Pain: Clinical Manual for Nursing Practice. St. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby; 1989.

7. Manion SC, Brennan TJ. Thoracic epidural analgesia and acute pain management. Anesthesiology. 2011;115(1):181-188.

8. Benzon H, Rathmell JP, Wu CL, Turk DC, Argoff CE, Hurley RW. Practical Management of Pain. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby; 2014.

9. Ganapathi S, Roberts G, Mogford S, Bahlmann B, Ateleanu B, Kumar N. Epidural analgesia provides effective pain relief in patients undergoing open liver surgery. Br J Pain. 2015;9(2):78-85.

10. Raichle KA, Osborne TL, Jensen MP, Ehde DM, Smith DG, Robinson LR. Preoperative state anxiety, acute postoperative pain, and analgesic use in persons undergoing lower limb amputation. Clin J Pain. 2015;31(8):699-706.

11. Ypsilantis E, Tang TY. Pre-emptive analgesia for chronic limb pain after amputation for peripheral vascular disease: a systematic review. Ann Vasc Surg. 2010;24(8):1139-1146.

12. Bloomquist T. Amputation and phantom limb pain: a pain-prevention model. AANA J. 2001;69(3):211-217.

13. Buchheit T, Pyati S. Prevention of chronic pain after surgical nerve injury: amputation and thoracotomy. Surg Clin North Am. 2012;92(2):393-407.

14. McCormick Z, Chang-Chien G, Marshall B, Huang M, Harden RN. Phantom limb pain: a systematic neuroanatomical-based review of pharmacologic treatment. Pain Med. 2014;15(2):292-305.

15. Borghi B, D'Addabbo M, Borghi R. Can neural blocks prevent phantom limb pain? Pain Manag. 2014;4(4):261-266.

16. Cummings KC 3rd, Xu F, Cummings LC, Cooper GS. A comparison of epidural analgesia and traditional pain management effects on survival and cancer recurrence after colectomy: a population-based study. Anesthesiology. 2012;116(4):797-806.

17. Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Pain Management Standards for Accredited Organizations. Available at https://www.jointcommission.org/resources/patient-safety-topics/pain-management-standards-for-accredited-organizations/. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

18. Mund G, Dogra S, Lucas L, Blau WS, Calhoun P. Epidural Analgesia in Lung Transplant Patients. Available at http://www.csen.com/anesthesia/lung-transplant.htm. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

19. Paice JA, DuPen A, Schwertz D. Catheter port cleansing techniques and the entry of povidone-iodine into the epidural space. Oncol Nurs Forum. 1999;26(3):603-605.

20. Christopherson R, James KE, Tableman M, Marshall P, Johnson FE. Long-term survival after colon cancer surgery: a variation associated with choice of anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(1):325-332.

21. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Chronic Pain management. Practice guidelines for chronic pain management. An updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Chronic Pain Management and the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. Anesthesiology. 2010;112:1-24.

22. Carroll IR, Angst MS, Clark JD. Management of perioperative pain in patients chronically consuming opioids. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(6):576-591.

23. Dawson S. Epidural catheter infections. J Hosp Infect. 2001;47(1):3-8.

24. Sugden A, Cox F. How to Assess Epidural Blockade. Available at https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/perioperative-nursing/how-to-assess-epidural-blockade-14-03-2006/. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

25. Chawla J. Epidural Nerve Block. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/149646-overview#a01. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

26. Elsharkawy H, Sonny A, Chin KJ. Localization of epidural space: a review of available technologies. Journal Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):16-27.

27. Hayek SM, Goomber R. A review of epidural catheter-related infections. Hosp Pract. 2012;40(2):176-185.

28. Sethna NF, Clendenin D, Athiraman U, Solodiuk J, Rodriguez DP, Zurakowski D. Incidence of epidural catheter-associated infections after continuous epidural analgesia in children. Anesthesiology. 2010;113(1):224-232.

29. Freise H, Van Aken HK. Risks and benefits of thoracic epidural anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2011;107(6):859-868.

30. Rawal N, Sjöstrand U, Christoffersson E, Dahlström B, Arvill A, Rydman H. Comparison of intramuscular and epidural morphine for postoperative analgesia in the grossly obese: influences on postoperative ambulation and pulmonary function. Anesthes Analg. 1984;63(6):583-592.

31. Towell TJ, Maric S, Jones M, Wyatt R, Duthie DJ. Introducing ropivacaine into a department's epidural analgesic practice: improving acute pain service practice. Clin Perform Qual Health Care. 2000;8(4):217-221.

32. Svenson I, Sjöström B, Haljamäe H. Assessment of pain experiences after elective surgery. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;20(3): 193-201.

33. Tenenbein PK, Debrouwere R, Maguire D, et al. Thoracic epidural analgesia improves pulmonary function in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth. 2008;55(6):344-350.

34. Bignami E, Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai GG, et al. Epidural analgesia improves outcome in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2010;24(4):586-597.

35. Ullman DA, Fortune JB, Greenhouse BB, Wimpy RE, Kennedy TM. The treatment of patients with multiple rib fractures using continuous thoracic epidural narcotic infusion. Reg Anesth. 1989;14(1):43-47.

36. Shi SH, Kong HS, Jia CK, et al. Risk factors for pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli among liver patients. Clin Transplant. 2010;24(6):758-765.

37. Yeager MP, Glass DD, Neff RK, Brinck-Johnsen T. Epidural analgesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients. Anesthesiology. 1987;66(6):729-736.

38. Mehta Y, Arora D, Vats M. Epidural analgesia in high risk cardiac surgical patients. HSR Proc Intensive Care Cardiovasc Anesth. 2012;4(1):11-14.

39. Augestad KM, Delaney CP. Postoperative ileus: impact of pharmacological treatment, laparoscopic surgery and enhanced recovery pathways. World J Gastroenterol. 2010;16(17):2067-2074.

40. Nendick M. Patient satisfaction with post-operative analgesia. Nurs Stand. 2000;14(22):32-37.

41. Van Boerum DH, Smith JT, Curtin MJ. A comparison of the effects of patient-controlled analgesia with intravenous opioids versus epidural analgesia on recovery after surgery for idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25(18):2355-2357.

42. McBeath DN, Shah J, Sebstian L, Sledzinkski K. The effect of patient controlled analgesia and continuous epidural infusion on length of hospital stay after total knee or total hip replacement. CRNA. 1995;6(1):31-36.

43. Kampe S, Weinreich G, Darr C, et al. The impact of epidural analgesia compared to systemic opioid-based analgesia with regard to length of hospital stay and recovery of bowel function: retrospective evaluation of 1,555 patients undergoing thoracotomy. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2014;9:175.

44. Bulger EM, Edwards T, Klotz P, Jurkovich GJ. Epidural analgesia improves outcome after multiple rib fractures. Surgery. 2004;136(2):426-430.

45. Pöpping DM, Elia N, Marret E, Remy C, Tramèr MR. Protective effects of epidural analgesia on pulmonary complications after abdominal and thoracic surgery: a meta-analysis. Arch Surg. 2008;143(10):990-999.

46. Pasero C, Eksterowicz, N, Primeau M, Cowley C. Registered Nurse Management and Monitoring of Analgesia by Catheter Techniques: Position Statement. Available at http://www.aspmn.org/documents/RegisteredNurseManagementandMonitoringofAnalgesiaByCatheterTechniquesPMNversion.pdf. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

47. LexiComp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

48. Gaudette KE, Weaver SJ. Intraspinal use of morphine. Ann Pharmacother. 2003;37(7-8):1132-1135.

49. Scott DA, Chamley DM, Mooney PH, Deam RK, Mark AH, Hägglöf B. Epidural ropivacaine infusion for postoperative analgesia after major lower abdominal surgery—a dose finding study. Anesth Analg. 1995;81(5):982-986.

50. Korula S, George GM, Ipe S, Abraham SP. Epidural anesthesia and post-operative analgesia for bilateral inguinal mesh hernioplasty: comparison of equipotent doses of ropivacaine and bupivacaine. Saudi J Anaesth. 2011;5(3):277-281.

51. American Society for Pain Management Nursing. ASPMN Position Statements. Registered Nurse Management and Monitoring of Analgesia by Catheter Techniques. Available at http://www.aspmn.org/Pages/ASPMNPositionStatements.aspx. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

52. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Statement on the Role of Registered Nurses in the Management of Continuous Regional Analgesia. Available at https://www.asahq.org/standards-and-guidelines/statement-on-the-role-of-registered-nurses-in-the-management-of-continuous-regional-analgesia. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

53. Macintyre P. Safety and efficacy of patient-controlled analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87(1):36-46.

54. Paul JE, Bertram B, Antoni K, et al. Impact of a comprehensive safety initiative on patient-controlled analgesia errors. Pain Med. 2010;113(6):1427-1432.

55. The Royal College of Anaesthetists. Best Practice in the Management of Epidural Analgesia in the Hospital Setting. Available at https://anaesthetists.org/Home/Resources-publications/Guidelines/Best-practice-in-the-management-of-epidural-analgesia-in-the-hospital-setting. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

56. Christianson D. Caring for a patient who has an implanted venous port. Am J Nurs. 1994;94(11):40-44.

57. Hadaway LC. Comparison of vascular access devices. Semin Oncol Nurs. 1995;11(3):154-166.

58. Goudet V, Timsit JF, Lucet JC, et al. Comparison of four skin preparation strategies to prevent catheter-related infection in intensive care unit (CLEAN trial): a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2013;27:14:114.

59. Lai NM, Lai NA, O'Riordan E, Chaiyakunapruk N, Taylor JE, Tan K. Skin antisepsis for reducing central venous catheter-related infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(7):CD010140.

60. Institute of Medicine. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001.

61. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. HealthGrades Eighth Annual Patient Safety in American Hospitals Study. Available at https://psnet.ahrq.gov/issue/healthgrades-eighth-annual-patient-safety-american-hospitals-study. Last accessed February 4, 2021.

62. Dennison RD. High-alert drugs: strategies for safe IV infusions. Am Nurse Today. 2006;1(2):28-33.

63. Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. 2021 Comprehensive Accreditation Manual for Hospitals. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations; 2020.

64. World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines for Safe Surgery. Geneva: WHO Press; 2009.

65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA hand hygiene task force. MMWR. 2002;51(RR16):1-44.

66. Dalton JA, Carlson J, Lindley C, Blau W, Youngblood R, Greer SM. Clinical economics: calculating the cost of acute postoperative pain medication. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;19(4):295-308.

67. McCaffery M, Ferrell BR, Pasero C. Nurses' personal opinions about patients' pain and their effect on recorded assessments and titration of opioids doses. Pain Manag Nurs. 2000;1(3):79-87.

68. Morris AC, Howie N. Pain in medical inpatients: an under-recognised problem? J R Coll Physicians Edinb. 2009;39(4):292-295.

69. Albrecht E, Taffe P, Yersin B, Schoettker P, Decosterd I, Hugli O. Undertreatment of acute pain (oligoanalgesia) and medical practice variation in prehospital analgesia of adult trauma patients: a 10 yr retrospective study. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110(1):96-106.

70. McDonald DD, McNulty J, Erickson K, Weiskopf C. Communicating pain and pain management needs after surgery. Appl Nurs Res. 2000;13(2):70-75.

71. Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(9):e825-e873.

72. Guay J, Kopp S. Epidural pain relief versus systemic opioid-based pain relief for abdominal aortic surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(1):CD005059.

73. Cashman JN, Dolin SJ. Respiratory and haemodynamic effects of acute postoperative pain management: evidence from published data. Br J Anaesth. 2004;93(2):212-223.

74. Roffey P, Thangathurai D, Mogos M, Black D, Mikhail M. Postural hypotension blamed on epidural. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001;22(2):634-635.

75. Olson B, Ustanko L, Melland H, Langemo D. Variables associated with hypotension in postoperative total knee arthroplasty patients receiving epidural analgesia. Orthop Nurs. 1992;11(4):31-37, 62.

76. Ladak SS, Katznelson R, Muscat M, Sawhney M, Beattie WS, O'Leary G. Incidence of urinary retention in patients with thoracic patient-controlled epidural analgesia (TPCEA) undergoing thoracotomy. Pain Manag Nurs. 2009;10(2):94-98.

77. Lingaraj K, Ruben L, Chan YH, Das SD. Identification of risk factors for urinary retention following total knee arthroplasty: a Singapore hospital experience. Singapore Med J. 2007;48(3):213-216.

78. Turnbull DK, Shepherd DB. Post-dural puncture headache: pathogenesis, prevention and treatment. Br J Anaesth. 2003;91(5): 718-729.

79. Calderon R, Copenhaver D. Postdural puncture headache. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2013;27(4):406-407.

80. Westbrook JL, Uncles DR, Sitzman BT, Carrie LE. Comparison of the force required for dural puncture with different spinal needles and subsequent leakage of cerebrospinal fluid. Anesth Analg. 1994;79(4):769-772.

81. Zorrilla-Vaca A, Healy R, Zorrilla-Vaca C. Finer gauge of cutting but not pencil-point needles correlate with lower incidence of post-dural puncture headache: a meta-regression analysis. J Anesth. 2016;30(5):855-863.

82. Xu H, Liu Y, Song WY, et al. Comparison of cutting and pencil-point spinal needle in spinal anesthesia regarding postdural puncture headache: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(14):e6527.

83. Yuan HB, Zuo Z, Yu KW, et al. Bacterial colonization of epidural catheters used for short-term post-operative analgesia: microbiological examination and risk factor analysis. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:130-137.

84. Bomberg H, Kubulus C, Herberger S, et al. Tunneling of thoracic epidural catheters if associated with fewer catheter-related infections: a retrospective registry analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2016;116(4):546-553.

Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations

1. Carmichael JC, Keller DS, Baldini G, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for enhanced recovery after colon and rectal surgery from the American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons and Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons. Dis Colon Rectum. 2017;60(8):761-784. Available at https://fascrs.org/ascrs/media/files/downloads/Clinical%20Practice%20Guidelines/clinical_practice_guidelines_for_enhanced_recovery-3.pdf. Last accessed March 4, 2021.

2. Galvagno SM Jr, Smith CE, Varon AJ, et al. Pain management for blunt thoracic trauma: a joint practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma and Trauma Anesthesiology Society. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81(5):936-951. Available at https://www.east.org/education-career-development/practice-management-guidelines/details/thoracic-trauma-blunt-pain-management-of. Last accessed March 4, 2021.


Copyright © 2021 NetCE, PO Box 997571, Sacramento, CA 95899-7571
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.