1. Federation of State Medical Boards. Guidelines for the Chronic Use of Opioid Analgesics. Washington, DC: Federation of State Medical Boards; 2017.
2. Katz NP, Birnbaum H, Brennan MJ. Prescription opioid abuse: challenges and opportunities for payers. Am J Manag Care. 2013;19:295-302.
3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Medication Guides: Distribution Requirements and Inclusion in Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS). Available at https://www.fda.gov/media/79776/download. Last accessed October 20, 2021.
4. American Chronic Pain Association and Stanford Division of Pain Medicine. ACPA-Stanford Resource Guide to Chronic Pain Management: An Integrated Guide to Comprehensive Pain Therapies. Available at https://med.stanford.edu/content/dam/sm/pain/documents/ACPA-Stanford-Resource-Guide-to-Chronic-Pain-Management-2021-Edition-4-18-21-.pdf. Last accessed October 20, 2021.
7. Utah Department of Health. Utah Clinical Guidelines on Prescribing Opioids for Treatment of Pain. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Department of Health; 2009.
8. Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Whitcomb L, et al. A new tool to assess and document pain outcomes in chronic pain patients receiving opioid therapy. Clin Ther. 2004;26:552-561.
9. Bureau of Substance Abuse Services, Massachusetts Department of Public Health. SBIRT: A Step-By-Step Guide for Screening and Intervening for Unhealthy Alcohol and Other Drug Use. Available at https://www.masbirt.org/sites/www.masbirt.org/files/documents/toolkit.pdf. Last accessed October 20, 2021.
10. Atluri SL, Akbik H, Sudarshan G. Prevention of opioid abuse in chronic non-cancer pain: an algorithmic, evidence-based approach. Pain Physician. 2012;15:ES177-ES189.
11. Mahajan G. Role of urine drug testing in the current opioid epidemic. Anesth Analg. 2017;125(6):2094-2104.
12. Meier B. Increase in Urine Testing Raises Ethical Questions. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/02/business/increase-in-urine-testing-raises-ethical-questions.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
13. Sekhon R, Aminjavahery N, Davis CN Jr, et al. Compliance with opioid treatment guidelines for chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) in primary care at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC). Pain Med. 2013;14(10):1548-1556.
14. Baxter J. Minimizing the Misuse of Prescription Opioids in Patients with Chronic Nonmalignant Pain. Available at https://www.drugabuse.gov/nidamed/centers-excellence/resources/minimizing-misuse-prescription-opioids-in-patients-chronic-nonmalignant-pain. Last accessed October 21, 2020.
15. American Medical Association. Promote Safe Storage and Disposal of Opioids and All Medications. Available at https://www.aafp.org/dam/AAFP/documents/patient_care/pain_management/safe-storage.pdf. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
16. Office of National Drug Control Policy. Proper Disposal of Prescription Drugs. Available at https://www.ncjrs.gov/ondcppubs/publications/pdf/prescrip_disposal.pdf. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
17. Walwyn WM, Miotto KA, Evans CJ. Opioid pharmaceuticals and addiction: the issues, and research directions seeking solutions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;108:156-165.
18. Bieber CM, Fernandez K, Borsook D, et al. Retrospective accounts of initial subjective effects of opioids in patients treated for pain who do or do not develop opioid addiction: a pilot case-control study. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;16:429-434.
19. Kaye AD, Jones MR1, Kaye AM, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in chronic pain: an updated review of opioid abuse predictors and strategies to curb opioid abuse (part 2). Pain Physician. 2017;20(2S):S111-S133.
20. Oliver J, Coggins C, Compton P, et al. American Society for Pain Management Nursing position statement: pain management in patients with substance use disorders. Pain Management Nursing. 2012;13:169-183.
22. Aggarwal SK. Cannabinergic pain medicine: a concise clinical primer and survey of randomized-controlled trial results. Clin J Pain. 2013;29:162-171.
23. Marijuana Policy Project. Medical Marijuana. Available at https://www.mpp.org/issues/medical-marijuana. Last accessed October 21, 2020.
24. Lynch ME, Ware MA. Cannabinoids for the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain: an updated systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2015;10:293-301.
25. Lynch ME, Clark AJ. Cannabis reduces opioid dose in the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:496-498.
26. Bushlin I, Rozenfeld R, Devi LA. Cannabinoid-opioid interactions during neuropathic pain and analgesia. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2010;10:80-86.
27. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Where and How to Dispose of Unused Medicines. Available at https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/where-and-how-dispose-unused-medicines. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
28. California Board of Pharmacy. Don't Flush Your Medicines Down the Toilet! Available at https://www.regionalsan.com/sites/main/files/file-attachments/dont_flush_meds.pdf. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
29. Opioid Analgesics REMS Program Companies. Patient Counseling Guide: What You Need to Know About Opioid Pain Medicines. Available at https://www.opioidanalgesicrems.com/Resources/Docs/patient_counseling_document.pdf. Last accessed October 21, 2021.
1. Manchikanti L, Kaye AM, Knezevic NN, et al. Responsible, safe, and effective prescription of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines. Pain Physician. 2017;20:S3-S92. Available at https://painphysicianjournal.com/current/pdf?article=NDIwMg%3D%3D&journal=103. Last accessed October 27, 2021.
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.