1. Federation of State Medical Boards. Strategies for Prescribing Opioids for the Management of Pain. Available at https://www.fsmb.org/siteassets/advocacy/policies/strategies-for-prescribing-opioids-for-the-management-of-pain.pdf. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
2. Dowell D, Ragan KR, Jones CM, Baldwin GT, Chou R. CDC Clinical Practice Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Pain — United States, 2022. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2022;71(3):1–95.
3. Mailis A, Taenzer P. Evidence-based guideline for neuropathic pain interventional treatments: spinal cord stimulation, intravenous infusions, epidural injections and nerve blocks. Pain Res Manage. 2012;17(3):150–158.
4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Opioid Analgesic Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS). Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/information-drug-class/opioid-analgesic-risk-evaluation-and-mitigation-strategy-rems. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
5. American Pain Foundation. Breakthrough cancer pain: mending the break in the continuum of care. J Pain and Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2011;25(3):252-264.
6. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Guidelines: Treatment by Cancer Type. Available at https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/category_1. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
7. Dalal S, Bruera E. Assessment and management of pain in the terminally ill. Prim Care Clin Office Pract. 2011;38:195-223.
8. Azizoddin DR. Prediction of daily pain and opioid consumption in hospitalized patients with cancer: The importance of psychological symptoms, previous pain, and opioid use. J Clin Oncol. 2022;40(suppl 28):195.
9. Breuer B, Fleishman SB, Cruciani RA, Portenoy RK. Medical oncologists' attitudes and practice in cancer pain management: a national survey. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(36):4769-4775.
10. Abrahm JL. A Physician's Guide to Pain and Symptom Management in Cancer Patients. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014.
11. American Society of Addiction Medicine. The ASAM national practice guideline for the treatment of opioid use disorder: 2020 focused update. J Addict Med. 2020;14(2S Suppl 1):1-91.
12. Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute pain management for patients receiving maintenance methadone or buprenorphine therapy. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(2):127-134.
13. The Pew Charitable Trusts. States Likely to Resist CDC Proposal Easing Opioid Access. Available at https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2022/03/01/states-likely-to-resist-cdc-proposal-easing-opioid-access. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
14. American Academy of Pain Medicine. Our Response to 2022 CDC Opioid Guidelines. Available at https://painmed.org/our-response-to-2022-cdc-opioid-guidelines. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
15. Sekhon R, Aminjavahery N, Davis CN Jr, et al. Compliance with opioid treatment guidelines for chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) in primary care at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC). Pain Med. 2013;14(10):1548-1556.
16. Passik SD. Issues in long-term opioid therapy: unmet needs, risks, and solutions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:593-601.
17. Holliday S, Hayes C, Dunlop A. Opioid use in chronic non-cancer pain. Part 2: prescribing issues and alternatives. Aust Fam Physician. 2013;42:104-111.
18. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA's Opioid Analgesic REMS Education Blueprint for Health Care Providers Involved in the Treatment and Monitoring of Patients with Pain. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/Opioid_analgesic_2018_09_18_FDA_Blueprint.pdf. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Risk for overdose from methadone used for pain relief—United States, 1999–2010. MMWR. 2012;61(26):493-497.
20. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Drug Scheduling. Available at https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
21. Opioid Analgesics REMS Program Companies. Patient Counseling Guide: What You Need to Know About Opioid Pain Medicines. Available at https://www.opioidanalgesicrems.com/Resources/Docs/patient_counseling_document.pdf. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
22. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA is requiring opioid pain medicine manufacturers to update prescribing information regarding long-term use. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-requiring-opioid-pain-medicine-manufacturers-update-prescribing-information-regarding-long-term. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
23. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Where and How to Dispose of Unused Medicines. Available at https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/where-and-how-dispose-unused-medicines. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
24. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Drug Disposal: FDA's Flush List for Certain Medicines. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/disposal-unused-medicines-what-you-should-know/drug-disposal-fdas-flush-list-certain-medicines. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
25. University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Pain and Policy Studies Group. Achieving Balance in State Pain Policy: A Progress Report Card (CY 2013). Available at https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805/699. Last accessed September 1, 2025.
26. Tamayo-Sarver JH, Hinze SW, Cydulka RK, Baker DW. Racial and ethnic disparities in emergency department analgesic prescription. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(12):2067-2073.
27. Robinson-Lane SG, Booker SQ. Culturally responsive pain management for black older adults. J Gerontol Nurs. 2017;43(8):33-41.
28. Singhal A, Tien Y, Hsia RY. Racial-ethnic disparities in opioid prescriptions at emergency department visits for conditions commonly associated with prescription drug abuse. PLoS One. 2016;11(8):1-14.
29. Rust G, Nembhard WN, Nichols, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in the provision of epidural analgesia to Georgia Medicaid beneficiaries during labor and delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(2):456-462.
30. Cintron A, Morrison RS. Pain and ethnicity in the United States: a systematic review. J Palliat Med. 2006;9(6):1454-1473.
31. Ezenwa MO, Ameringer S, Ward SE, Serlin RC. Racial and ethnic disparities in pain management in the United States. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2006;38(3):225-233.
32. Hastie BA, Riley JL 3rd, Kaplan L, et al. Ethnicity interacts with the OPRM1 gene in experimental pain sensitivity. Pain. 2012;153(8):1610-1619.
33. Anderson KO, Green CR, Payne R. Racial and ethnic disparities in pain: causes and consequences of unequal care. J Pain. 2009;10(12):1187-1204.
34. Haozous EA, Doorenbos AZ, Stoner S. Pain management experiences and the acceptability of cognitive behavioral strategies among American Indians and Alaska Natives. J Transcult Nurs. 2016;27(3):233-240.
35. Pillay T, van Zyl HA, Blackbeard D. Chronic pain perception and cultural experience. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2014;113:151-160.
36. Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Ethnic differences in pain and pain management. Pain Manag. 2012;2(3):219-230.
37. Gagnon CM, Matsuura JT, Smith CC, Stanos SP. Ethnicity and interdisciplinary pain treatment. Pain Pract. 2014;14(6):532-540.
1. Kaye AD, Jones MR, Kaye AM, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in chronic pain: an updated review of opioid abuse predictors and strategies to curb opioid abuse (part 2). Pain Physician. 2017;20(2S):S111-S133. Available at https://www.painphysicianjournal.com/current/pdf?article=NDIwNA%3D%3D&journal=103. Last accessed September 28, 2025.
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.