CADHA22 • California Dental Hygienists and Assistants 2022

Table of Contents

CADHA22 • California Dental Hygienists and Assistants 2022

How to Receive Credit

NetCE 3 Hour Course #57000 • Implicit Bias in Health Care

57000 • Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DEFINITIONS OF IMPLICIT BIAS AND OTHER TERMINOLOGIES

3. MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT BIAS: A FOCUS ON THE IAT

4. THEORETIC EXPLANATIONS AND CONTROVERSIES

5. CONSEQUENCES OF IMPLICIT BIASES

6. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL TO RECOGNIZING AND REDUCING IMPLICIT BIAS

7. CREATING A SAFE ENVIRONMENT

8. STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE AWARENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS

9. INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE IMPLICIT BIASES

10. ROLE OF INTERPROFESSIONAL COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE AND IMPLICIT BIASES

11. CONCLUSION

12. RESOURCES

Works Cited

NetCE 2 Hour Course #51293 • The California Dental Practice Act

51293 • The California Dental Practice Act

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DENTISTRY DEFINED: SCOPE OF PRACTICE

3. LICENSURE

4. VIOLATIONS AND PENALTIES

5. LAWS GOVERNING THE PRESCRIPTION OF DRUGS

6. REPORTING OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT

7. CONCLUSION

8. RESOURCES

Works Cited

NetCE 2 Hour Course #58583 • Infection Control for Dental Professionals: The California Requirement

58583 • Infection Control for Dental Professionals: The California Requirement

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OSHA AND CAL/OSHA REGULATIONS

3. MODES OF TRANSMISSION

4. BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS

5. PREVENTION STRATEGIES

6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL MEASURES

7. ENGINEERING AND WORK PRACTICE CONTROLS

8. PROTECTING DENTAL HEALTHCARE WORKERS

9. CONCLUSION

10. DENTAL BOARD OF CALIFORNIA GENERAL PROVISIONS: SECTION 1005. MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR INFECTION CONTROL

11. CAL/OSHA COVID-19 STANDARD

Works Cited

NetCE 5 Hour Course #50072 • Migraine: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Advances

50072 • Migraine: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Advances

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PREVALENCE, INCIDENCE, AND SOCIAL BURDEN OF MIGRAINE

3. CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRAINES

4. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MIGRAINE

5. MIGRAINE DIAGNOSIS

6. MIGRAINE TREATMENT

7. CONCLUSION

8. RESOURCES

Works Cited

Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations

CADHA22 • California Dental Hygienists and Assistants 2022

Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2026 NetCE, All rights reserved.

CADHA22 • California Dental Hygienists and Assistants 2022

Expiration Date: 06/30/2024

How to Receive Credit

To complete this Special Offer for continuing education credit please go to http://www.netce.com/specials in your browser.

For assistance with receiving continuing education credit, please contact us at help@netce.com.

57000 • Implicit Bias in Health Care

Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2021 NetCE, All rights reserved.

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern as some cite that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This course will explore definitions of implicit and explicit bias, the nature and dynamics of implicit biases, and how they can affect health outcomes. Because implicit biases are unconscious, strategies will be reviewed to assist in raising professionals' awareness of and interventions to reduce them.

Table of Contents

57000 • Implicit Bias in Health Care

Course Overview

Audience

Course Objective

Learning Objectives

Faculty

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planner

Division Planner Disclosure

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Director Disclosure Statement

About the Sponsor

Disclosure Statement

Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DEFINITIONS OF IMPLICIT BIAS AND OTHER TERMINOLOGIES

IMPLICIT VS. EXPLICIT BIAS

OTHER COMMON TERMINOLOGIES

3. MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT BIAS: A FOCUS ON THE IAT

EXTENT OF IMPLICIT BIASES AND RISK FACTORS

4. THEORETIC EXPLANATIONS AND CONTROVERSIES

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

BEHAVIORAL OR FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVES

NEUROSCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES

STRUCTURAL OR CRITICAL THEORY

5. CONSEQUENCES OF IMPLICIT BIASES

HEALTH DISPARITIES

CLINICAL DECISIONS AND PROVIDER-PATIENT INTERACTIONS

PATIENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF CARE

6. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL TO RECOGNIZING AND REDUCING IMPLICIT BIAS

7. CREATING A SAFE ENVIRONMENT

8. STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE AWARENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS

9. INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE IMPLICIT BIASES

PERSPECTIVE TAKING

EMPATHY INTERVENTIONS

INDIVIDUATION

MINDFULNESS

COUNTER-STEREOTYPICAL IMAGING

EFFECTIVENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS INTERVENTIONS

10. ROLE OF INTERPROFESSIONAL COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE AND IMPLICIT BIASES

11. CONCLUSION

12. RESOURCES

MINDFULNESS RESOURCES

Works Cited

57000 • Implicit Bias in Health Care

Education Category. Ethics - Human Rights

Release Date. 09/01/2021

Review Date. 01/15/2024

Expiration Date. 10/31/2024

Course Overview

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern as some cite that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This course will explore definitions of implicit and explicit bias, the nature and dynamics of implicit biases, and how they can affect health outcomes. Because implicit biases are unconscious, strategies will be reviewed to assist in raising professionals' awareness of and interventions to reduce them.

Audience

This course is designed for dental professionals working in all practice settings.

Course Objective

The purpose of this course is to provide dental professionals with an overview of the impact of implicit biases on clinical interactions and decision making.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Define implicit and explicit biases and related terminology.

2. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the Implicit Association Test.

3. Describe how different theories explain the nature of implicit biases, and outline the consequences of implicit biases.

4. Discuss strategies to raise awareness of and mitigate or eliminate one's implicit biases.

Faculty

Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW, received her Master’s in Social Work from Columbia University, School of Social Work. She has clinical experience in mental health in correctional settings, psychiatric hospitals, and community health centers. In 1997, she received her PhD from UCLA, School of Public Policy and Social Research. Dr. Yick Flanagan completed a year-long post-doctoral fellowship at Hunter College, School of Social Work in 1999. In that year she taught the course Research Methods and Violence Against Women to Masters degree students, as well as conducting qualitative research studies on death and dying in Chinese American families.

Previously acting as a faculty member at Capella University and Northcentral University, Dr. Yick Flanagan is currently a contributing faculty member at Walden University, School of Social Work, and a dissertation chair at Grand Canyon University, College of Doctoral Studies, working with Industrial Organizational Psychology doctoral students. She also serves as a consultant/subject matter expert for the New York City Board of Education and publishing companies for online curriculum development, developing practice MCAT questions in the area of psychology and sociology. Her research focus is on the area of culture and mental health in ethnic minority communities.

Faculty Disclosure

Contributing faculty, Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Division Planner

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD

Division Planner Disclosure

The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Sarah Campbell

Director Disclosure Statement

The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.

Implicit Bias in Health Care

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern, as there is some evidence that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions. Implicit biases may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages.

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be categorized as change-based or control-based. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the 1990s, social psychologists Dr. Mahzarin Banaji and Dr. Tony Greenwald introduced the concept of implicit bias and developed the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as a measure. In 2003, the Institute of Medicine published the report Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care highlighting the role of health professionals' implicit biases in the development of health disparities [1]. The phenomenon of implicit bias is premised on the assumption that while well-meaning individuals may deny prejudicial beliefs, these implicit biases negatively affect their clinical communications, interactions, and diagnostic and treatment decision-making [2,3].

One explanation is that implicit biases are a heuristic, or a cognitive or mental shortcut. Heuristics offer individuals general rules to apply to situations in which there is limited, conflicting, or unclear information. Use of a heuristic results in a quick judgment based on fragments of memory and knowledge, and therefore, the decisions made may be erroneous. If the thinking patterns are flawed, negative attitudes can reinforce stereotypes [4]. In health contexts, this is problematic because clinical judgments can be biased and adversely affect health outcomes. The Joint Commission provides the following example [3]: A group of physicians congregate to examine a child's x-rays but has not been able to reach a diagnostic consensus. Another physician with no knowledge of the case is passing by, sees the x-rays, and says "Cystic fibrosis." The group of physicians was aware that the child is African American and had dismissed cystic fibrosis because it is less common among Black children than White children.

The purpose of this course is to provide health professionals an overview of implicit bias. This includes an exploration of definitions of implicit and explicit bias. The nature and dynamics of implicit biases and how they can affect health outcomes will be discussed. Finally, because implicit biases are unconscious, strategies will be reviewed to assist in raising professionals' awareness of and interventions to reduce them.

2. DEFINITIONS OF IMPLICIT BIAS AND OTHER TERMINOLOGIES

IMPLICIT VS. EXPLICIT BIAS

In a sociocultural context, biases are generally defined as negative evaluations of a particular social group relative to another group. Explicit biases are conscious, whereby an individual is fully aware of his/her attitudes and there may be intentional behaviors related to these attitudes [5]. For example, an individual may openly endorse a belief that women are weak and men are strong. This bias is fully conscious and is made explicitly known. The individual's ideas may then be reflected in his/her work as a manager.

FitzGerald and Hurst assert that there are cases in which implicit cognitive processes are involved in biases and conscious availability, controllability, and mental resources are not [6]. The term "implicit bias" refers to the unconscious attitudes and evaluations held by individuals. These individuals do not necessarily endorse the bias, but the embedded beliefs/attitudes can negatively affect their behaviors [2,7,8,9]. Some have asserted that the cognitive processes that dictate implicit and explicit biases are separate and independent [9].

Implicit biases can start as early as 3 years of age. As children age, they may begin to become more egalitarian in what they explicitly endorse, but their implicit biases may not necessarily change in accordance to these outward expressions [10]. Because implicit biases occur on the subconscious or unconscious level, particular social attributes (e.g., skin color) can quietly and insidiously affect perceptions and behaviors [11]. According to Georgetown University's National Center on Cultural Competency, social characteristics that can trigger implicit biases include [12]:

- Age

- Disability

- Education

- English language proficiency and fluency

- Ethnicity

- Health status

- Disease/diagnosis (e.g., HIV/AIDS)

- Insurance

- Obesity

- Race

- Socioeconomic status

- Sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression

- Skin tone

- Substance use

An alternative way of conceptualizing implicit bias is that an unconscious evaluation is only negative if it has further adverse consequences on a group that is already disadvantaged or produces inequities [6,13]. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages [13].

When the concept of implicit bias was introduced in the 1990s, it was thought that implicit biases could be directly linked to behavior. Despite the decades of empirical research, many questions, controversies, and debates remain about the dynamics and pathways of implicit biases [2].

OTHER COMMON TERMINOLOGIES

In addition to understanding implicit and explicit bias, there is additional terminology related to these concepts that requires specific definition.

Cultural Competence

Cultural competence is broadly defined as practitioners' knowledge of and ability to apply cultural information and appreciation of a different group's cultural and belief systems to their work [14]. It is a dynamic process, meaning that there is no endpoint to the journey to becoming culturally aware, sensitive, and competent. Some have argued that cultural curiosity is a vital aspect of this approach.

Cultural Humility

Cultural humility refers to an attitude of humbleness, acknowledging one's limitations in the cultural knowledge of groups. Practitioners who apply cultural humility readily concede that they are not experts in others' cultures and that there are aspects of culture and social experiences that they do not know. From this perspective, patients are considered teachers of the cultural norms, beliefs, and value systems of their group, while practitioners are the learners [15]. Cultural humility is a lifelong process involving reflexivity, self-evaluation, and self-critique [16].

Discrimination

Discrimination has traditionally been viewed as the outcome of prejudice [17]. It encompasses overt or hidden actions, behaviors, or practices of members in a dominant group against members of a subordinate group [18]. Discrimination has also been further categorized as lifetime discrimination, which consists of major discreet discriminatory events, or everyday discrimination, which is subtle, continual, and part of day-to-day life and can have a cumulate effect on individuals [19].

Diversity

Diversity "encompasses differences in and among societal groups based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, physical/mental abilities, religion, sexual orientation, and other distinguishing characteristics" [20]. Diversity is often conceptualized into singular dimensions as opposed to multiple and intersecting diversity factors [21].

Intersectionality

Intersectionality is a term to describe the multiple facets of identity, including race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, sex, and age. These facets are not mutually exclusive, and the meanings that are ascribed to these identities are inter-related and interact to create a whole [22].

Prejudice

Prejudice is a generally negative feeling, attitude, or stereotype against members of a group [23]. It is important not to equate prejudice and racism, although the two concepts are related. All humans have prejudices, but not all individuals are racist. The popular definition is that "prejudice plus power equals racism" [23]. Prejudice stems from the process of ascribing every member of a group with the same attribute [24].

Race

Race is linked to biology. Race is partially defined by physical markers (e.g., skin or hair color) and is generally used as a mechanism for classification [25]. It does not refer to cultural institutions or patterns. In modern history, skin color has been used to classify people and to imply that there are distinct biologic differences within human populations [26]. Historically, the U.S. Census has defined race according to ancestry and blood quantum; today, it is based on self-classification [26].

There are scholars who assert that race is socially constructed without any biological component [27]. For example, racial characteristics are also assigned based on differential power and privilege, lending to different statuses among groups [28].

Racism

Racism is the "systematic subordination of members of targeted racial groups who have relatively little social power…by members of the agent racial group who have relatively more social power" [29]. Racism is perpetuated and reinforced by social values, norms, and institutions.

There is some controversy regarding whether unconscious (implicit) racism exists. Experts assert that images embedded in our unconscious are the result of socialization and personal observations, and negative attributes may be unconsciously applied to racial minority groups [30]. These implicit attributes affect individuals' thoughts and behaviors without a conscious awareness.

Structural racism refers to the laws, policies, and institutional norms and ideologies that systematically reinforce inequities resulting in differential access to services such as health care, education, employment, and housing for racial and ethnic minorities [31,32].

3. MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT BIAS: A FOCUS ON THE IAT

Project Implicit is a research project sponsored by Harvard University and devoted to the study and monitoring of implicit biases. It houses the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which is one of the most widely utilized standardized instruments to measure implicit biases. The IAT is based on the premise that implicit bias is an objective and discreet phenomenon that can be measured in a quantitative manner. Developed and first introduced in 1998, it is an online test that assesses implicit bias by measuring how quickly people make associations between targeted categories with a list of adjectives [33]. For example, research participants might be assessed for their implicit biases by seeing how rapidly they make evaluations among the two groups/categories career/family and male/female. Participants tend to more easily affiliate terms for which they hold implicit or explicit biases. So, unconscious biases are measured by how quickly research participants respond to stereotypical pairings (e.g., career/male and family/female). The larger the difference between the individual's performance between the two groups, the stronger the degree of bias [34,35]. Since 2006, more than 4.6 million individuals have taken the IAT, and results indicate that the general population holds implicit biases [3].

Interactive Activity

Visit https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit and complete an assessment.

Measuring implicit bias is complex, because it requires an instrument that is able to access underlying unconscious processes. While many of the studies on implicit biases have employed the IAT, there are other measures available. They fall into three general categories: the IAT and its variants, priming methods, and miscellaneous measures, such as self-report, role-playing, and computer mouse movements [36]. This course will focus on the IAT, as it is the most commonly employed instrument.

The IAT is not without controversy. One of the debates involves whether IAT scores focus on a cognitive state or if they reflect a personality trait. If it is the latter, the IAT's value as a diagnostic screening tool is diminished [37]. There is also concern with its validity in specific arenas, including jury selection and hiring [37]. Some also maintain that the IAT is sensitive to social context and may not accurately predict behavior [37]. Essentially, a high IAT score reflecting implicit biases does not necessarily link to discriminating behaviors, and correlation should not imply causation. A meta-analysis involving 87,418 research participants found no evidence that changes in implicit biases affected explicit behaviors [38].

EXTENT OF IMPLICIT BIASES AND RISK FACTORS

Among the more than 4 million participants who have completed the IAT, individuals generally exhibited implicit preference for White faces over Black or Asian faces. They also held biases for light skin over dark skin, heterosexual over gender and sexual minorities (LGBTQ+), and young over old [39]. The Pew Research Center also conducted an exploratory study on implicit biases, focusing on the extent to which individuals adhered to implicit racial biases [40]. A total of 2,517 IATs were completed and used for the analysis. Almost 75% of the respondents exhibited some level of implicit racial biases. Only 20% to 30% did not exhibit or showed very little implicit bias against the minority racial groups tested. Approximately half of all single-race White individuals displayed an implicit preference for White faces over Black faces. For single-race Black individuals, 45% had implicit preference for their own group. For biracial White/Black adults, 23% were neutral. In addition, 22% of biracial White/Asian participants had no or minimal implicit racial biases. However, 42% of the White/Black biracial adults leaned toward a pro-White bias.

In another interesting field experiment, although not specifically examining implicit bias, resumes with names commonly associated with African American or White candidates were submitted to hiring officers [41]. Researchers found that resumes with White-sounding names were 50% more likely to receive callbacks than resumes with African American-sounding names [41]. The underlying causes of this gap were not explored.

Implicit bias related to sex and gender is also significant. A survey of emergency medicine and obstetrics/gynecology residency programs in the United States sought to examine the relationship between biases related to perceptions of leadership and gender [42]. In general, residents in both programs (regardless of gender) tended to favor men as leaders. Male residents had greater implicit biases compared with their female counterparts.

Other forms of implicit bias can affect the provision of health and mental health care. One online survey examining anti-fat biases was provided to 4,732 first-year medical students [43]. Respondents completed the IAT, two measures of explicit bias, and an anti-fat attitudes instrument. Nearly 75% of the respondents were found to hold implicit anti-fat biases. Interestingly, these biases were comparable to the scope of implicit racial biases. Male sex, non-Black race, and lower body mass index (BMI) predicted holding these implicit biases.

Certain conditions or environmental risk factors are associated with an increased risk for certain implicit biases, including [44,45]:

- Stressful emotional states (e.g., anger, frustration)

- Uncertainty

- Low-effort cognitive processing

- Time pressure

- Lack of feedback

- Feeling behind with work

- Lack of guidance

- Long hours

- Overcrowding

- High-crises environments

- Mentally taxing tasks

- Juggling competing tasks

4. THEORETIC EXPLANATIONS AND CONTROVERSIES

A variety of theoretical frameworks have been used to explore the causes, nature, and dynamics of implicit biases. Each of the theories is described in depth, with space given to explore controversies and debates about the etiology of implicit bias.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

One of the main goals of social psychology is to understand how attitudes and belief structures influence behaviors. Based on frameworks from both social and cognitive psychology, many theoretical frameworks used to explain implicit bias revolve around the concept of social cognition. One branch of cognitive theory focuses on the role of implicit or nondeclarative memory. Experts believe that this type of memory allows certain behaviors to be performed with very little conscious awareness or active thought. Examples include tooth brushing, tying shoelaces, and even driving. To take this concept one step farther, implicit memories may also underlie social attitudes and stereotype attributions [46]. This is referred to as implicit social cognition. From this perspective, implicit biases are automatic expressions based on belonging to certain social groups [47]. The IAT is premised on the role of implicit memory and past experiences in predicting behavior without explicit memory triggering [48].

Another branch of cognitive theory used to describe implicit biases involves heuristics. When quick decisions are required under conditions of uncertainty or fatigue, and/or when there is a tremendous amount of information to assimilate without sufficient time to process, decision-makers resort to heuristics [49]. Heuristics are essentially mental short cuts that facilitate (usually unconscious) rules that promote automatic processing [50]. However, these rules can also be influenced by socialization factors, which could then affect any unconscious or latent cognitive associations about power, advantage, and privilege. Family, friends, media, school, religion, and other social institutions all play a role in developing and perpetuating implicit and explicit stereotypes, and cognitive evaluations can be primed or triggered by an environmental cue or experience [51]. When a heuristic is activated, an implicit memory or bias may be triggered simultaneously [47]. This is also known as the dual-process model of information processing [50].

BEHAVIORAL OR FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Behavioral or functional theorists argue that implicit bias is not necessarily a latent or unconscious cognitive structure. Instead, this perspective recognizes implicit bias as a group-based behavior [52]. Behavior is biased if it is influenced by social cues indicating the social group to which someone belongs [52]. Social cues can occur rapidly and unintentionally, which ultimately leads to automatic or implicit effects on behavior. The appeal of a behavioral or functional approach to implicit bias is that it is amoral; that is, it is value- and judgment-free [52]. Rather than viewing implicit bias as an invisible force (i.e., unconscious cognitive structure), it is considered a normal behavior [53].

NEUROSCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES

Implicit bias has neuroscientific roots as well and has been linked to functions of the amygdala [2,54]. The amygdala is located in the temporal lobe of the brain, and it communicates with the hypothalamus and plays a large role in memory. When situations are emotionally charged, the amygdala is activated and connects the event to memory, which is why individuals tend to have better recall of emotional events. This area of the brain is also implicated in processing fear. Neuroscientific studies on implicit biases typically use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to visualize amygdala activation during specific behaviors or events. In experimental studies, when White research subjects were shown photos of Black faces, their amygdala appeared to be more activated compared to when they viewed White faces [55]. This trend toward greater activation when exposed to view the faces of persons whose race differs from the viewer starts in adolescence and appears to increase with age [54]. This speaks to the role of socialization in the developmental process [54].

It may be that the activation of the amygdala is an evolutionary threat response to an outgroup [56]. Another potential explanation is that the activation of the amygdala is due to the fear of appearing prejudiced to others who will disapprove of the bias [56]. The neuroscientific perspective of implicit bias is controversial. While initial empirical studies appear to link implicit bias to amygdala activation, many researchers argue this relationship is too simplistic [2].

STRUCTURAL OR CRITICAL THEORY

Many scholars and policymakers are concerned about the narrow theoretical views that researchers of implicit bias have taken. By focusing on unconscious cognitive structures, social cognition and neuroscientific theories miss the opportunity to also address the role of macro or systemic factors in contributing to health inequities [9,57]. By focusing on the neurobiology of implicit bias, for example, racism and bias is attributed to central nervous system function, releasing the individual from any control or responsibility. However, the historical legacy of prejudice and bias has roots in economic and structural issues that produce inequities [58]. Larger organizational, institutional, societal, and cultural forces contribute, perpetuate, and reinforce implicit and explicit biases, racism, and discrimination. Psychological and neuroscientific approaches ultimately decontextualize racism [9,57].

In response to this conflict, a systems-based practice has been proposed [59]. This type of practice emphasizes the role of sociocultural determinants of health outcome and the fact that health inequities stem from larger systemic forces. As a result, medical and health education and training should focus on how patients' health and well-being may reflect structural vulnerabilities driven in large part by social, cultural, economic, and institutional forces. Health and mental health professionals also require social change and advocacy skills to ensure that they can effect change at the organizational and institutional levels [59].

Implicit bias is not a new topic; it has been discussed and studied for decades in the empirical literature. Because implicit bias is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, it is important to recognize that there may be no one single theory that can fully explain its etiology.

5. CONSEQUENCES OF IMPLICIT BIASES

HEALTH DISPARITIES

Implicit bias has been linked to a variety of health disparities [1]. Health disparities are differences in health status or disease that systematically and adversely affect less advantaged groups [60]. These inequities are often linked to historical and current unequal distribution of resources due to poverty, structural inequities, insufficient access to health care, and/or environmental barriers and threats [61]. Healthy People 2030 defines a health disparity as [62]:

…a particular type of health difference that is closely linked with social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage. Health disparities adversely affect groups of people who have systematically experienced greater obstacles to health based on their racial or ethnic group; religion; socioeconomic status; gender; age; mental health; cognitive, sensory, or physical disability; sexual orientation or gender identity; geographic location; or other characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion.

As noted, in 2003, the Institute of Medicine implicated implicit bias in the development and continued health disparities in the United States [1]. Despite progress made to lessen the gaps among different groups, health disparities continue to exist. One example is racial disparities in life expectancy among Black and White individuals in the United States. Life expectancy for Black men is 4.4 years lower than White men; for Black women, it is 2.9 years lower compared with White women [63]. Hypertension, diabetes, and obesity are more prevalent in non-Hispanic Black populations compared with non-Hispanic White groups (25%, 49%, and 59% higher, respectively) [64]. In one study, African American and Latina women were more likely to experience cesarean deliveries than their White counterparts, even after controlling for medically necessary procedures [65]. This places African American and Latina women at greater risk of infection and maternal mortality.

Gender health disparities have also been demonstrated. Generally, self-rated physical health (considered one of the best proxies to health) is poorer among women than men. Depression is also more common among women than men [66]. Lesbian and bisexual women report higher rates of depression and are more likely than non-gay women to engage risk behaviors such as smoking and binge drinking, perhaps as a result of LGBTQ+-related stressors. They are also less likely to access healthcare services [67].

Socioeconomic status also affects health care engagement and quality. In a study of patients seeking treatment for thoracic trauma, those without insurance were 1.9 times more likely to die compared with those with private insurance [68].

CLINICAL DECISIONS AND PROVIDER-PATIENT INTERACTIONS

In an ideal situation, health professionals would be explicitly and implicitly objective and clinical decisions would be completely free of bias. However, healthcare providers have implicit (and explicit) biases at a rate comparable to that of the general population [6,69]. It is possible that these implicit biases shape healthcare professionals' behaviors, communications, and interactions, which may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions [69]. They may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up [7].

In a landmark 2007 study, a total of 287 internal medicine physicians and medical residents were randomized to receive a case vignette of an either Black or White patient with coronary artery disease [70]. All participants were also administered the IAT. When asked about perceived level of cooperativeness of the White or Black patient from the vignette, there were no differences in their explicit statements regarding cooperativeness. Yet, the IAT scores did show differences, with scores showing that physicians and residents had implicit preferences for the White patients. Participants with greater implicit preference for White patients (as reflected by IAT score) were more likely to select thrombolysis to treat the White patient than the Black patient [70]. This led to the possible conclusion that implicit racial bias can influence clinical decisions regarding treatment and may contribute to racial health disparities. However, some argue that using vignettes depicting hypothetical situations does not accurately reflect real-life conditions that require rapid decision-making under stress and uncertainty.

PATIENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF CARE

It has been hypothesized that providers' levels of bias affect the ratings of patient-centered care [34]. Patient-centered care has been defined as patients' positive ratings in the areas of perception of provider concern, provider answering patients' questions, provider integrity, and provider knowledge of the patient. Using data from 134 health providers who completed the IAT, a total of 2,908 diverse racial and ethnic minority patients participated in a telephone survey. Researchers found that for providers who scored high on levels of implicit bias, African American patients' ratings for all dimensions of patient-centered care were low compared with their White patient counterparts. Latinx patient ratings were low regardless of level of implicit bias.

A 2013 study recorded clinical interactions between 112 low-income African American patients and their 14 non-African American physicians for approximately two years [71]. Providers' implicit biases were also assessed using the IAT. In general, the physicians talked more than the patients; however, physicians with higher implicit bias scores also had a higher ratio of physician-to-patient talk time. Patients with higher levels of perceived discrimination had a lower ratio of physician-to-patient talk time (i.e., spoke more than those with lower reported perceived discrimination). A lower ratio of physician-patient talk time correlated to decreased likelihood of adherence.

Another study assessed 40 primary care physicians and 269 patients [72]. The IAT was administered to both groups, and their interactions were recorded and observed for verbal dominance (defined as the time of physician participation relative to patient participation). When physicians scored higher on measures of implicit bias, there was 9% more verbal dominance on the part of the physicians in the visits with Black patients and 11% greater in interactions with White patients. Physicians with higher implicit bias scores and lower verbal dominance also received lower scores on patient ratings on interpersonal care, particularly from Black patients [72].

In focus groups with racially and ethnically diverse patients who sought medical care for themselves or their children in New York City, participants reported perceptions of discrimination in health care [73]. They reported that healthcare professionals often made them feel less than human, with varying amounts of respect and courtesy. Some observed differences in treatment compared with White patients. One Black woman reported [73]:

When the doctor came in [after a surgery], she proceeded to show me how I had to get up because I'm being released that day "whether I like it or not"…She yanked the first snap on the left leg…So I'm thinking, 'I'm human!' And she was courteous to the White lady [in the next bed], and I've got just as much age as her. I qualify on the level and scale of human being as her, but I didn't feel that from the doctor.

Another participant was a Latino physician who presented to the emergency department. He described the following [73]:

They put me sort of in the corner [in the emergency department] and I can't talk very well because I can't breathe so well. The nurse comes over to me and actually says, "Tu tiene tu Medicaid?" I whispered out, "I'm a doctor…and I have insurance." I said it in perfect English. Literally, the color on her face went completely white…Within two minutes there was an orthopedic team around me…I kept wondering about what if I hadn't been a doctor, you know? Pretty eye opening and very sad.

These reports are illustrative of many minority patients' experiences with implicit and explicit racial/ethnic biases. Not surprisingly, these biases adversely affect patients' views of their clinical interactions with providers and ultimately contribute to their mistrust of the healthcare system.

6. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL TO RECOGNIZING AND REDUCING IMPLICIT BIAS

There are no easy answers to raising awareness and reducing health providers' implicit bias. Each provider may be in a different developmental stage in terms of awareness, understanding, acceptance, and application of implicit bias to their practice. A developmental model for intercultural sensitivity training has been established to help identify where individuals may be in this developmental journey [74,75]. It is important to recognize that the process of becoming more self-aware is fluid; reaching one stage does not necessarily mean that it is "conquered" or that there will not be additional work to do in that stage. As a dynamic process, it is possible to move back and forth as stress and uncertainty triggers implicit biases [74]. This developmental model includes six stages:

- Denial: In this stage, the individual has no awareness of the existence of cultural differences between oneself and members of other cultural groups and subgroups. Individuals in this stage have no awareness of implicit bias and cannot distinguish between explicit and implicit biases.

- Defense: In this stage, the person may accept that implicit biases exist but does not acknowledge that implicit biases exist within themselves.

- Minimization: An individual in this stage acknowledges that implicit biases may exist in their colleagues and possibly themselves. However, he or she is uncertain of their consequences and adverse effects. Furthermore, the person believes he or she is able to treat patients in an objective manner.

- Acceptance: In the acceptance stage, the individual recognizes and acknowledges the role of implicit biases and how implicit biases influence interactions with patients.

- Adaptation: Those in the adaptation stage self-reflect and acknowledge that they have unrecognized implicit biases. Not only is there an acknowledgement of the existence of implicit bias, these people begin to actively work to reduce the potential impact of implicit biases on interactions with patients.

- Integration: At this stage, the health professional works to incorporate change in their day-to-day practice in order to mitigate the effects of their implicit biases on various levels—from the patient level to the organization level.

7. CREATING A SAFE ENVIRONMENT

Creating a safe environment is the essential first step to exploring issues related to implicit bias. Discussions of race, stereotypes, privilege, and implicit bias, all of which are very complex, can be volatile or produce heightened emotions. When individuals do not feel their voices are heard and/or valued, negative emotions or a "fight-or-flight" response can be triggered [76]. This may manifest as yelling, demonstrations of anger, or crying or leaving the room or withdrawing and remaining silent [76].

Creating and fostering a sense of psychological safety in the learning environment is crucial. Psychological safety results when individuals feel that their opinions, views, thoughts, and contributions are valued despite tension, conflict, and discomfort. This allows the individual to feel that their identity is intact [76]. When psychological safety is threatened, individuals' energies are primarily expended on coping rather than learning [76]. As such, interventions should not seek to confront individuals or make them feel guilty and/or responsible [77].

When implicit bias interventions or assessments are planned, facilitators should be open, approachable, non-threatening, and knowledgeable; this will help create a safe and inclusive learning environment [77]. The principles of respect, integrity, and confidentiality should be communicated [77]. Facilitators who demonstrate attunement, authenticity, and power-sharing foster positive and productive dialogues about subjects such as race and identity [76]. Attunement is the capacity of an individual to tacitly comprehend the lived experiences of others, using their perspectives to provide an alternative viewpoint for others. Attunement does not involve requiring others to talk about their experiences if they are not emotionally ready [76]. Authenticity involves being honest and transparent with one's own position in a racialized social structure and sharing one's own experiences, feelings, and views. Being authentic also means being vulnerable [76]. Finally, power-sharing entails redistributing power in the learning environment. The education environment is typically hierarchical, with an expert holding more power than students or participants. Furthermore, other students may hold more power by virtue of being more comfortable speaking/interacting [76]. Ultimately, promoting a safe space lays a foundation for safely and effectively implementing implicit bias awareness and reduction interventions.

8. STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE AWARENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS

As discussed, the IAT can be used as a metric to assess professionals' level of implicit bias on a variety of subjects, and this presupposes that implicit bias is a discrete phenomenon that can be measured quantitatively [79]. When providers are aware that implicit biases exist, discussion and education can be implemented to help reduce them and/or their impact.

Another way of facilitating awareness of providers' implicit bias is to ask self-reflective questions about each interaction with patients. Some have suggested using SOAP (subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) notes to assist practitioners in identifying implicit biases in day-to-day interactions with patients [80]. Integrating the following questions into charts and notes can stimulate reflection about implicit bias globally and for each specific patient interaction:

- Did I think about any socioeconomic and/or environmental factors that may contribute to the health and access of this patient?

- How was my communication and interaction with this patient? Did it change from my customary pattern?

- How could my implicit biases influence care for this patient?

When reviewing the SOAP notes, providers can look for recurring themes of stereotypical perceptions, biased communication patterns, and/or types of treatment/interventions proposed and assess whether these themes could be influenced by biases related to race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexuality, or other social characteristics.

A review of empirical studies conducted on the effectiveness of interventions promoting implicit bias awareness found mixed results. At times, after a peer discussion of IAT scores, participants appeared less interested in learning and employing implicit bias reduction interventions. However, other studies have found that receiving feedback along with IAT scores resulted in a reduction in implicit bias [81]. Any feedback, education, and discussions should be structured to minimize participant defensiveness [81].

9. INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE IMPLICIT BIASES

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be further categorized as change-based or control-based [58]. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors [58]. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

PERSPECTIVE TAKING

Perspective taking is a strategy of taking on a first-person perspective of a person in order to control one's automatic response toward individuals with certain social characteristics that might trigger implicit biases [82]. The goal is to increase psychological closeness, empathy, and connection with members of the group [4]. Engaging with media that presents a perspective (e.g., watching documentaries, reading an autobiography) can help promote better understanding of the specific group's lives, experiences, and viewpoints. In one study, participants who adopted the first-person perspectives of African Americans had more positive automatic evaluations of the targeted group [83].

Interactive Activity

Consuming media that presents a viewpoint and life experience different from your own can help minimize implicit biases. Visit the following sites and consider how they might challenge or expand your perception of each group. Internet searches can help identify many more options for various social groups.

Think Out Loud Podcast

Young Black people share their experiences growing up in Portland, Oregon.

https://www.opb.org/article/2020/10/30/young-black-people-share-their-experiences-growing-up-in-portland

George Takei: Growing Up Asian-American

This PBS clip is a brief introduction, and the subject can be further explored in Takei's book They Called Us Enemy.

https://www.pbs.org/wnet/pioneers-of-television/video/george-takei-growing-up-asian-american

Seattle Public Library LGBTQ Staff Picks

A reading list including books and films focusing on LGBTQ+ life, culture, history, and politics.

https://www.spl.org/programs-and-services/social-justice/lgbtq/lgbt-staff-picks

EMPATHY INTERVENTIONS

Promoting positive emotions such as empathy and compassion can help reduce implicit biases. This can involve strategies like perspective taking and role playing [77]. In a study examining analgesic prescription disparities, nurses were shown photos of White or African American patients exhibiting pain and were asked to recommend how much pain medication was needed; a control group was not shown photos. Those who were shown images of patients in pain displayed no differences in recommended dosage along racial lines; however, those who did not see the images averaged higher recommended dosages for White patients compared with Black patients [84]. This suggests that professionals' level of empathy (enhanced by seeing the patient in pain) affected prescription recommendations.

In a study of healthcare professionals randomly assigned to an empathy-inducing group or a control group, participants were given the IAT to measure implicit bias prior to and following the intervention. Level of implicit bias among participants in the empathy-inducing group decreased significantly compared with their control group counterparts [85].

INDIVIDUATION

Individuation is an implicit bias reduction intervention that involves obtaining specific information about the individual and relying on personal characteristics instead of stereotypes of the group to which he or she belongs [4,82]. The key is to concentrate on the person's specific experiences, achievements, personality traits, qualifications, and other personal attributes rather than focusing on gender, race, ethnicity, age, ability, and other social attributes, all of which can activate implicit biases. When providers lack relevant information, they are more likely to fill in data with stereotypes, in some cases unconsciously. Time constraints and job stress increase the likelihood of this occurring [69].

MINDFULNESS

Mindfulness requires stopping oneself and deliberately emptying one's mind of distractions or allowing distractions to drift through one's mind unimpeded, focusing only on the moment; judgment and assumptions are set aside. This approach involves regulating one's emotions, responses, and attention to return to the present moment, which can reduce stress and anxiety [86]. There is evidence that mindfulness can help regulate biological and emotional responses and can have a positive effect on attention and habit formation [4]. A mindfulness activity assists individuals to be more aware of their thoughts and sensations. This focus on deliberation moves the practitioner away from a reliance on instincts, which is the foundation of implicit bias-affected practice [4,87].

Mindfulness approaches include yoga, meditation, and guided imagery. Additional resources to encourage a mindfulness practice are provided later in this course.

An approach to mindfulness using the acronym STOPP has been developed as a practical exercise to engage in mindfulness in any moment. STOPP is an acronym for [88]:

- Stop

- Take a breath

- Observe

- Pull back

- Practice

Interactive Activity

Visit the following website to view a short, animated video on the STOPP technique. After viewing the video, consider how you can incorporate the technique into your work.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tStXi7f7Vgk

Mindfulness practice has been explored as a technique to reduce activation or triggering of implicit bias, enhance awareness of and ability to control implicit biases that arise, and increase capacity for compassion and empathy toward patients by reducing stress, exhaustion, and compassion fatigue [89]. One study examined the effectiveness of a loving-kindness meditation practice training in improving implicit bias toward African Americans and unhoused persons. One hundred one non-Black adults were randomized to one of three groups: a six-week loving-kindness mindfulness practice, a six-week loving-kindness discussion, or the waitlist control. The IAT was used to measure implicit biases, and the results showed that the loving-kindness meditation practice decreased levels of implicit biases toward both groups [90].

There is also some novel evidence that mindfulness may have neurologic implications. For example, one study showed decreased amygdala activation after a mindfulness meditation [91]. However, additional studies are required in this area before conclusions can be reached.

COUNTER-STEREOTYPICAL IMAGING

Counter-stereotypical imaging approaches involve presenting an image, idea, or construct that is counter to the oversimplified stereotypes typically held regarding members of a specific group. In one study, participants were asked to imagine either a strong woman (the experimental condition) or a gender-neutral event (the control condition) [92]. Researchers found that participants in the experimental condition exhibited lower levels of implicit gender bias. Similarly, exposure to female leaders was found to reduce implicit gender bias [93]. Whether via increased contact with stigmatized groups to contradict prevailing stereotypes or simply exposure to counter-stereotypical imaging, it is possible to unlearn associations underlying various implicit biases. If the social environment is important in priming positive evaluations, having more positive visual images of members in stigmatized groups can help reduce implicit biases [94]. Some have suggested that even just hanging photos and having computer screensavers reflecting positive images of various social groups could help to reduce negative associations [94].

EFFECTIVENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS INTERVENTIONS

The effectiveness of implicit bias trainings and interventions has been scrutinized. In a 2019 systematic review, different types of implicit bias reduction interventions were evaluated. A meta-analysis of empirical studies published between May 2005 and April 2015 identified eight different classifications of interventions [13]:

- Engaging with others' perspectives, consciousness-raising, or imagining contact with outgroup: Participants either imagine how the outgroup thinks and feels, imagine having contact with the outgroup, or are made aware of the way the outgroup is marginalized or given new information about the outgroup.

- Identifying the self with the outgroup: Participants perform tasks that lessen barriers between themselves and the outgroup.

- Exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars: Participants are exposed to exemplars that contradict negative stereotypes of the outgroup.

- Appeal to egalitarian values: Participants are encouraged to activate egalitarian goals or think about multiculturalism, cooperation, or tolerance.

- Evaluative conditioning: Participants perform tasks to strengthen counter-stereotypical associations.

- Inducing emotion: Emotions or moods are induced in participants.

- Intentional strategies to overcome biases: Participants are instructed to implement strategies to over-ride or suppress their biases.

- Pharmacotherapy

Interventions found to be the most effective were, in order from most to least, [13]:

- Intentional strategies to overcome biases

- Exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars

- Identifying self with the outgroup

- Evaluative conditioning

- Inducing emotions

In general, the sample sizes were small. It is also unclear how generalizable the findings are, given many of the research participants were college psychology students. The 30 studies included in the meta-analysis were cross-sectional (not longitudinal) and only measured short-term outcomes, and there is some concern about "one shot" interventions, given the fact that implicit biases are deeply embedded. Would simply acknowledging the existence of implicit biases be sufficient to eliminate them [95,96]? Or would such a confession act as an illusion to having self-actualized and moved beyond the bias [95]?

Optimally, implicit bias interventions involve continual practice to address deeply habitual implicit biases or interventions that target structural factors [95,96].

10. ROLE OF INTERPROFESSIONAL COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE AND IMPLICIT BIASES

The study of implicit bias is appropriately interdisciplinary, representing social psychology, medicine, health psychology, neuroscience, counseling, mental health, gerontology, LGBTQ+ studies, religious studies, and disability studies [13]. Therefore, implicit bias empirical research and curricula training development lends itself well to interprofessional collaboration and practice (ICP).

One of the core features of ICP is sharing—professionals from different disciplines share their philosophies, values, perspectives, data, and strategies for planning of interventions [97]. ICP also involves the sharing of roles, responsibilities, decision making, and power [98]. Everyone on the team employs their expertise, knowledge, and skills, working collectively on a shared, patient-centered goal or outcome [98,99].

Another feature of ICP is interdependency. Instead of working in an autonomous manner, each team member's contributions are valued and maximized, which ultimately leads to synergy [97]. At the heart of this are two other key features: mutual trust/respect and communication [99]. In order to share responsibilities, the differing roles and expertise are respected.

Experts have recommended that a structural or critical theoretical perspective be integrated into core competencies in healthcare education to teach students about implicit bias, racism, and health disparities [100]. This includes [100]:

- Values/ethics: The ethical duty for health professionals to partner and collaborate to advocate for the elimination of policies that promote the perpetuation of implicit bias, racism, and health disparities among marginalized populations.

- Roles/responsibilities: One of the primary roles and responsibilities of health professionals is to analyze how institutional and organizational factors promote racism and implicit bias and how these factors contribute to health disparities. This analysis should extend to include one's own position in this structure.

- Interprofessional communication: Ongoing discussions of implicit bias, perspective taking, and counter-stereotypical dialogues should be woven into day-to-day practice with colleagues from diverse disciplines.

- Teams/teamwork: Health professionals should develop meaningful contacts with marginalized communities in order to better understand whom they are serving.

Adopting approaches from the fields of education, gender studies, sociology, psychology, and race/ethnic studies can help build curricula that represent a variety of disciplines [78]. Students can learn about and discuss implicit bias and its impact, not simply from a health outcomes perspective but holistically. Skills in problem-solving, communication, leadership, and teamwork should be included, so students can effect positive social change [78].

11. CONCLUSION

In the more than three decades since the introduction of the IAT, the implicit bias knowledge base has grown significantly. It is clear that most people in the general population hold implicit biases, and health professionals are no different. While there continue to be controversies regarding the nature, dynamics, and etiology of implicit biases, it should not be ignored as a contributor to health disparities, patient dissatisfaction, and suboptimal care. Given the complex and multifaceted nature of this phenomenon, the solutions to raise individuals' awareness and reduce implicit bias are diverse and evolving.

12. RESOURCES

American Bar Association Diversity and Inclusion Center

Toolkits and Projects

https://www.americanbar.org/groups/diversity/resources/toolkits

National Implicit Bias Network

https://implicitbias.net/resources/resources-by-category

The Ohio State University

The Women's Place: Implicit Bias Resources

https://womensplace.osu.edu/resources/implicit-bias-resources

The Ohio State University

Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity

http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu

University of California, Los Angeles

Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion: Implicit Bias

https://equity.ucla.edu/know/implicit-bias

University of California, San Francisco, Office of Diversity and Outreach

Unconscious Bias Resources

https://diversity.ucsf.edu/resources/unconscious-bias-resources

Unconscious Bias Project

https://unconsciousbiasproject.org

MINDFULNESS RESOURCES

University of California, San Diego Center for Mindfulness

https://cih.ucsd.edu/mindfulness

University of California, Los Angeles Guided Meditations

https://www.uclahealth.org/programs/marc/free-guided-meditations/guided-meditations

Mindful: Mindfulness for Healthcare Professionals

https://www.mindful.org/mindfulhome-mindfulness-for-healthcare-workers-during-covid

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51293 • The California Dental Practice Act

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2022 NetCE, All rights reserved.

Although its primary objective is to safeguard the public, the California Dental Practice Act is an excellent resource for dental professionals to ensure compliance with state law. The California Dental Practice Act is the body of laws in the California Business and Professions Code and the California Code of Regulations governing dental professionals, including dentists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, orthodontists, dental assistants, and dental hygienists. The Act is intended to serve as a legal guideline for both professionals and the public regarding all aspects of dental practice.

Table of Contents

51293 • The California Dental Practice Act

Course Overview

Audience

Course Objective

Learning Objectives

Faculty

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planner

Division Planner Disclosure

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Director Disclosure Statement

About the Sponsor

Disclosure Statement

Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DENTISTRY DEFINED: SCOPE OF PRACTICE

DENTISTS

DENTAL ASSISTANTS (UNLICENSED)

REGISTERED DENTAL ASSISTANTS

DENTAL HYGIENISTS

3. LICENSURE

LICENSE RENEWAL

ACTS LEADING TO SUSPENSION OF A LICENSE AND IN VIOLATION OF THE DENTAL PRACTICE ACT

4. VIOLATIONS AND PENALTIES

5. LAWS GOVERNING THE PRESCRIPTION OF DRUGS

6. REPORTING OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT

CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT REPORTING LAW

IDENTIFYING, DOCUMENTING, AND REPORTING ABUSE AND NEGLECT

ELDER AND DEPENDENT ADULT ABUSE AND NEGLECT

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

7. CONCLUSION

8. RESOURCES

Works Cited

51293 • The California Dental Practice Act

Education Category. Management

Release Date. 02/01/2022

Expiration Date. 01/31/2025

Course Overview

Although its primary objective is to safeguard the public, the California Dental Practice Act is an excellent resource for dental professionals to ensure compliance with state law. The California Dental Practice Act is the body of laws in the California Business and Professions Code and the California Code of Regulations governing dental professionals, including dentists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, orthodontists, dental assistants, and dental hygienists. The Act is intended to serve as a legal guideline for both professionals and the public regarding all aspects of dental practice.

Audience

This course is designed for all California dentists, dental hygienists, and dental assistants in all practice settings.

Course Objective

The purpose of this course is to provide California dental professionals with a working knowledge of the contents of the California Dental Practice Act, ensuring that they practice legally and safely.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Define the scope of practice of dental professionals in California.

2. Describe the standards of licensure of and medication prescription by dental professionals in California.

3. Identify possible victims of violence or neglect and outline the appropriate response.

Faculty

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD, graduated from the University of California School of Dentistry, San Francisco, California, in 1966. In 1975, he completed residency training in Periodontics and received a Master's degree from George Washington University.
Dr. Frey retired from the United States Army Dental Corps in 1989 after 22 years of service. Throughout the course of his professional career, he has continuously practiced dentistry, the first 7 years as a general dentist and the past more than 40 as a periodontist. His military experience included the command of a networked Dental Activity consisting of five dental clinics. In his last assignment, he was in charge of a 38-chair facility. Colonel Frey was selected by the Army to serve on two separate occasions as the Chair of the Periodontal Department in Army General Dentistry Residency Training Programs.
Dr. Frey is the founder and president of Perio Plus, a practice management firm specializing in creating individually-designed hygiene and periodontal care programs for general dentists. He is also the creator of the Inspector Gum patient education series.

Faculty Disclosure

Contributing faculty, William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Division Planner

Mark J. Szarejko, DDS, FAGD

Division Planner Disclosure

The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Sarah Campbell

Director Disclosure Statement

The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.

Implicit Bias in Health Care

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern, as there is some evidence that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions. Implicit biases may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages.

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be categorized as change-based or control-based. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

1. INTRODUCTION

The California Dental Practice Act is the body of laws in the California Business and Professions Code (CBPC) and the California Code of Regulations (CCR) governing all dental professionals, including dentists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, orthodontists, unlicensed dental assistants, registered dental assistants, and dental hygienists. The Act is intended to serve as a legal guideline for both professionals and the public regarding all aspects of dental practice. As defined in Section 1016.(b)1 of the CCR, continuing education on the California Dental Practice Act is required and must include instruction on utilization, scope of practice, prescribing laws, violations, citations, fines, licensure, the identification of abuse, and mandatory abuse reporting [1]. Of course, the Act is a much larger volume, so much so that it is beyond the scope of this course to elucidate every section. The Dental Practice Act is not intended to replace professional oaths and codes of ethics but does define actions and omissions that may lead to legal action and revocation of a license to practice dentistry in the State of California, the laws of which are continually evolving.

The Dental Board of California (a division of the California Department of Consumer Affairs), which consists of eight practicing dentists, one registered dental hygienist, one registered dental assistant (each practicing for at least five years), and five public members, is responsible for licensure of qualified dental health professionals, enforcement of the California Dental Practice Act, and improving the education of consumers and licensees [19]. The Board's highest priority is to protect the health and safety of the public.

In addition, the practice of dental hygiene is regulated by the Dental Hygiene Board of California, the first of its kind in the United States [20].

2. DENTISTRY DEFINED: SCOPE OF PRACTICE

According to the American Dental Association, dentistry is defined as "the evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, the craniomaxillofacial area and the adjacent structures and their impact on the human body. This care is provided by dentists within the scope of their education, training and experience in accordance with the ethics of the profession and applicable law" [2]. The CBPC and the CCR provide specific information regarding utilization and scope of practice for dentists, unlicensed dental assistants, registered dental assistants, and registered dental hygienists, as evidenced in the following sections [1].

DENTISTS

CBPC Section 1625. Dentistry is the diagnosis or treatment, by surgery or other method, of diseases and lesions and the correction of malpositions of the human teeth, alveolar process, gums, jaws, or associated structures; and such diagnosis or treatment may include all necessary related procedures as well as the use of drugs, anesthetic agents, and physical evaluation. Without limiting the foregoing, a person practices dentistry within the meaning of this chapter who does any one or more of the following [24]:

(a) By card, circular, pamphlet, newspaper, Internet website, social media, or in any other way advertises themselves or represents themselves to be a dentist.

(b) Performs, or offers to perform, an operation or diagnosis of any kind, or treats diseases or lesions of the human teeth, alveolar process, gums, jaws, or associated structures, or corrects malposed positions thereof.

(c) In any way indicates that the person will perform by themselves or their agents or servants any operation upon the human teeth, alveolar process, gums, jaws, or associated structures, or in any way indicates that the person will construct, alter, repair, or sell any bridge, crown, denture or other prosthetic appliance or orthodontic appliance.

(d) Makes, or offers to make, an examination of, with the intent to perform or cause to be performed any operation on the human teeth, alveolar process, gums, jaws, or associated structures.

(e) Manages or conducts as manager, proprietor, conductor, lessor, or otherwise, a place where dental operations are performed.

The Board requires that dentists ensure that each patient of record receives a copy of the Dental Materials Fact Sheet (provided by the Board) prior to the placement of his or her first dental restoration [25]. The Dental Materials Fact Sheet details the comparative risks and benefits of available dental restorative materials. The patient must sign an acknowledgment of receipt of the fact sheet, and a copy of the acknowledgment must be placed in the patient's record.

DENTAL ASSISTANTS (UNLICENSED)

Although unlicensed dental assistants are not Board approved, their duties and actions are governed by the Act and they are required to complete coursework in the Dental Practice Act, infection control, and basic life support. Failure to follow the regulations set forth by California law can result in fines and/or imprisonment. As defined in CBPC Section 1750.(a), "A dental assistant is an individual who, without a license, may perform basic supportive dental procedures, as authorized by Section 1750.1 and by regulations adopted by the board, under the supervision of a licensed dentist" [1]. Basic supportive dental procedures are those procedures that have technically elementary characteristics, are completely reversible, and are unlikely to precipitate potentially hazardous conditions for the patient being treated. A licensed dentist is responsible for assuring unlicensed dental assistants' competence and ensuring that they complete required coursework (e.g., two-hour Dental Practice Act, eight-hour infection control, basic life support) and maintain certification in basic life support (if employed for longer than 120 days). Specific duties pertaining to dental assistant practice can be found in CCR Section 1085 [28]. General information regarding regulations pertaining to dental assistants is located in CBPC Sections 1740–1777; although these sections are not discussed in this course, they should be periodically reviewed to ensure self-compliance with the act. The CBPC may include additional duties for various dental assistant professions.

CCR Section 1085. Dental Assistant Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically so provided by regulation, a dental assistant may not perform the following functions or any other activity which represents the practice of dentistry or requires the knowledge, skill and training of a licensed dentist:

1. Diagnosis and treatment planning;

2. Surgical or cutting procedures on hard or soft tissue;

3. Fitting and adjusting of correctional and prosthodontic appliances;

4. Prescription of medicines;

5. Placement, condensation, carving or removal of permanent restorations, including final cementation procedures;

6. Irrigation and medication of canals, try-in cones, reaming, filing or filling of root canals;

7. Taking of impressions for prosthodontic appliances, bridges or any other structures which may be worn in the mouth;

8. Administration of injectable and/or general anesthesia;

9. Oral prophylaxis procedures.

(b) A dental assistant may perform such basic supportive dental procedures as the following under the general supervision of a licensed dentist:

1. Extra-oral duties or functions specified by the supervising dentist;

2. Operation of dental radiographic equipment for the purpose of oral radiography if the dental assistant has complied with the requirements of section 1656 of the Code;

3. Examine orthodontic appliances.

(c) A dental assistant may perform such basic supportive dental procedures as the following under the direct supervision of a licensed dentist when done so pursuant to the order, control and full professional responsibility of the supervising dentist. Such procedures shall be checked and approved by the supervising dentist prior to dismissal of the patient from the office of said dentist.

1. Take impressions for diagnostic and opposing models, bleaching trays, temporary crowns and bridges, and sports guards;

2. Apply non-aerosol and non-caustic topical agents;

3. Remove post-extraction and periodontal dressings;

4. Placement of elastic orthodontic separators;

5. Remove orthodontic separators;

6. Assist in the administration of nitrous oxide analgesia or sedation; however, a dental assistant shall not start the administration of the gases and shall not adjust the flow of the gases unless instructed to do so by the dentist who shall be present at the patient's chairside at the implementation of these instructions. This regulation shall not be construed to prevent any person from taking appropriate action in the event of a medical emergency.

7. Hold anterior matrices;

8. Remove sutures;

9. Take intra-oral measurements for orthodontic procedures;

10. Seat adjusted retainers or headgears, including appropriate instructions;

11. Check for loose bands;

12. Remove arch wires;

13. Remove ligature ties;

14. Apply topical fluoride, after scaling and polishing by the supervising dentist or a registered dental hygienist;

15. Place and remove rubber dams;

16. Place, wedge and remove matrices;

17. Cure restorative or orthodontic materials in operative site with light-curing device.

For the purpose of this section, a supervising licensed dentist is defined as a dentist whose patient is receiving the services of a dental assistant in the treatment facility and is under the direct control of said licensed dentist [1]. Direct supervision is defined as supervision of dental procedures based on instructions given by a licensed dentist who must be physically present in the facility when the procedures are performed.

REGISTERED DENTAL ASSISTANTS

Registered dental assistants (RDAs) are Board-licensed professionals who may perform a greater range of duties than unlicensed dental assistants. Specific information pertaining to RDAs' scope of practice can be found in CCR Section 1086, and general information regarding regulations pertaining to RDAs is located in CBPC Sections 1740–1777, which should be reviewed periodically to ensure self-compliance with the act [28].

CCR Section 1086. RDA Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically so provided by regulation, the prohibitions contained in section 1085 of these regulations apply to registered dental assistants.

(b) A registered dental assistant may perform all functions which may be performed by a dental assistant.

(c) Under general supervision, a registered dental assistant may perform the following duties:

1. Mouth-mirror inspection of the oral cavity, to include charting of obvious lesions, existing restorations and missing teeth;

2. Placement and removal of temporary sedative dressings.

(d) A registered dental assistant may perform the following procedures under the direct supervision of a licensed dentist when done so pursuant to the order, control and full professional responsibility of the supervising dentist. Such procedures shall be checked and approved by the supervising dentist prior to dismissal of the patient from the office of said dentist.

1. Obtain endodontic cultures;

2. Dry canals, previously opened by the supervising dentist, with absorbent points;

3. Test pulp vitality;

4. Place bases and liners on sound dentin;

5. Remove excess cement from supragingival surfaces of teeth with a hand instrument or floss;

6. Size stainless steel crowns, temporary crowns and bands;

7. Fabrication of temporary crowns intra-orally;

8. Temporary cementation and removal of temporary crowns and removal of orthodontic bands;

9. Placement of orthodontic separators;

10. Placement and ligation of arch wires;

11. Placement of post-extraction and periodontal dressings;

12. Apply bleaching agents;

13. Activate bleaching agents with non-laser light-curing device;

14. Take bite registrations for diagnostic models for case study only;

15. Coronal polishing (Evidence of satisfactory completion of a board-approved course of instruction in this function must be submitted to the board prior to any performance thereof). The processing times for coronal polishing course approval are set forth in section 1069.
This procedure shall not be intended or interpreted as a complete oral prophylaxis (a procedure which can be performed only by a licensed dentist or registered dental hygienist). A licensed dentist or registered dental hygienist shall determine that the teeth to be polished are free of calculus or other extraneous material prior to coronal polishing.

16. Removal of excess cement from coronal surfaces of teeth under orthodontic treatment by means of an ultrasonic scaler. (Evidence of satisfactory completion of a board-approved course of instruction or equivalent instruction in an approved RDA program in this function must be submitted to the board prior to any performance thereof.) The processing times for ultrasonic scaler course approval are set forth in section 1069.

(e) Settings. Registered dental assistants may undertake the duties authorized by this section in a treatment facility under the jurisdiction and control of the supervising licensed dentist, or in an equivalent facility approved by the board.

Registered Dental Assistants in Extended Functions

Registered dental assistants in extended functions (RDAEFs) are Board-licensed dental professionals who have a greater breadth of permitted duties than RDAs. Specifics regarding these allowed duties can be found in CCR Section 1087 [28].

CCR Section 1087. RDAEF Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically so provided by regulation, the prohibitions contained in Section 1085 apply to RDAEFs.

(b) An RDAEF may perform all duties assigned to dental assistants and registered dental assistants.

(c) An RDAEF may perform the procedures set forth below under the direct supervision of a licensed dentist when done so pursuant to the order, control and full professional responsibility of the supervising dentist. Such procedures shall be checked and approved by the supervising dentist prior to dismissal of the patient from the office of said dentist.

1. Cord retraction of gingivae for impression procedures;

2. Take impressions for cast restorations;

3. Take impressions for space maintainers, orthodontic appliances, and occlusal guards;

4. Prepare enamel by etching for bonding;

5. Formulate indirect patterns for endodontic post and core castings;

6. Fit trial endodontic filling points;

7. Apply pit and fissure sealants;

8. Remove excess cement from subgingival tooth surfaces with a hand instrument;

9. Apply etchant for bonding restorative materials.

(d) Settings. Registered dental assistants in extended functions may undertake the duties authorized by this section in a treatment facility under the jurisdiction and control of the supervising licensed dentist, or in an equivalent facility approved by the board.

In addition to the duties outlined in CCR section 1087, section 1753.5 of the CBPC states that RDAEFs may conduct preliminary evaluation of the patient's oral health, including, but not limited to, charting, intraoral and extra-oral evaluation of soft tissue, classifying occlusion, and myofunctional evaluation, and perform oral health assessments in school-based, community health project settings under the direction of a dentist, registered dental hygienist, or registered dental hygienist in alternative practice [1]. RDAEFs may hold an orthodontic assistant permit, a dental sedation assistant permit, or both.

DENTAL HYGIENISTS

Registered dental hygienists (RDHs), registered dental hygienists in extended functions (RDHEFs), and registered dental hygienists in alternative practice (RDHAPs) are Board-licensed occupations administered by the Dental Hygiene Committee of California, and the California Dental Practice Act contains the main body of laws and regulations that govern their practice.

The Dental Hygiene Committee of California was created by the Board and consists of nine governor-appointed positions: four public members, four dental hygienists, and one practicing dentist [20]. Responsibilities of the Dental Hygiene Committee include adopting regulations; issuing, reviewing, and revoking licenses; developing and administering examinations; determining fees; and updating continuing education requirements for all dental hygiene licensure categories. The Act contains specific information regarding the permitted duties and settings of RDH practice (CCR Section 1088), RDHEF practice (CCR Section 1089), and RDHAP practice (CCR Section 1090) [28]. Additional laws and regulations pertaining specifically to dental hygiene practice are located in CBPC Sections 1900–1966.6. These sections should be periodically reviewed to ensure self-compliance with the Act.

Registered Dental Hygienists

CCR Section 1088. RDH Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically so provided by regulation, the prohibition contained in Section 1085(a), subsections (1) through (8) of these regulations shall apply to duties performed by a registered dental hygienist.

(b) A registered dental hygienist may perform all duties assigned to dental assistants and registered dental assistants, under the supervision of a licensed dentist as specified in these regulations.

(c) Under general supervision, a registered dental hygienist may perform the following duties in addition to those provided by Section 1760(b) of the Code:

1. Root planing;

2. Polish and contour restorations;

3. Oral exfoliative cytology;

4. Apply pit and fissure sealants;

5. Preliminary examination, including but not limited to:

1. Periodontal charting;

2. Intra and extra-oral examination of soft tissue;

3. Charting of lesions, existing restorations and missing teeth;

4. Classifying occlusion;

5. Myofunctional evaluation.

6. Irrigate sub-gingivally with an antimicrobial and/or antibiotic liquid solution(s).

7. The following direct supervision duties of dental assistants and registered dental assistants:

1. Dental Assistant.

1. Taking impressions for diagnostic and opposing models;

2. Applying non-aerosol and non-caustic topical agents;

3. Removing post-extraction and periodontal dressings;

4. Removing sutures;

5. Taking intra-oral measurements for orthodontic procedures;

6. Checking for loose bands;

7. Removing ligature ties;

8. Applying topical fluoride;

9. Placing elastic separators.

2. Registered Dental Assistant

1. Test pulp vitality;

2. Removing excess cement from supragingival surfaces of teeth;

3. Sizing stainless steel crowns, temporary crowns and bands;

4. Temporary cementation and removal of temporary crowns and removal of orthodontic bands;

5. Placing post-extraction and periodontal dressings.

(d) A registered dental hygienist may perform the procedures set forth below under the direct supervision of a licensed dentist when done so pursuant to the order, control and full professional responsibility of the supervising dentist. Such procedures shall be checked and approved by the supervising dentist prior to dismissal of the patient from the office of said dentist.

1. Placement of antimicrobial or antibiotic medicaments which do not later have to be removed;

2. All duties so assigned to a dental assistant or a registered dental assistant, unless otherwise indicated;

3. Periodontal soft tissue curettage (Evidence of satisfactory completion of a board-approved course of instruction in this function must be submitted to the board prior to any performance thereof);

4. Administration of local anesthetic agents, infiltration and conductive, limited to the oral cavity (Evidence of satisfactory completion of a board-approved course of instruction in this function must be submitted to the board prior to any performance thereof);

5. Administration of nitrous oxide and oxygen when used as an analgesic, utilizing fail-safe type machines containing no other general anesthetic agents. (Evidence of satisfactory completion of a board-approved course of instruction in this function must be submitted to the board prior to any performance thereof.)

(e) A registered dental hygienist may undertake the duties authorized by this section in the following settings, provided the appropriate supervision requirements are met:

1. The treatment facility of a licensed dentist;

2. Licensed health facilities as defined in Section 1250 of the Health and Safety Code,

3. Licensed clinics as defined in Section 1203 of the Health and Safety Code,

4. Licensed community care facilities as defined in Section 1502 of the Health and Safety Code,

5. Schools of any grade level whether public or private,

6. Public institutions, including but not limited to federal, state and local penal and correctional facilities.

7. Mobile units operated by a public or governmental agency or a nonprofit and charitable organization approved by the board; provided, however, that the mobile unit meets the statutory and regulatory requirements for mobile units,

8. Home of a non-ambulatory patient, provided there is a written note from a physician or registered nurse stating that the patient is unable to visit a dental office.

9. Health fairs or similar non-profit community activities. Each such fair or activity shall be approved by the board.

Any other facility must be approved by the board.

Registered Dental Hygienists in Extended Functions

CCR Section 1089. RDHEF Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically provided by regulation, the prohibitions contained in Section 1085(a) (1) through (8) shall apply to RDHEFs.

(b) An RDHEF may perform all duties assigned to dental assistants, registered dental assistants and registered dental hygienists.

(c) An RDHEF may perform the procedures set forth below under the direct supervision of a licensed dentist when done so pursuant to the order, control and full professional responsibility of the supervising dentist. Such procedures shall be checked and approved by the supervising dentist prior to dismissal of the patient from the office of said dentist.

1. Cord retraction of gingivae for impression procedures;

2. Take impressions for cast restorations;

3. Take impressions for space maintainers, orthodontic appliances and guards;

4. Prepare enamel by etching for bonding;

5. Formulate indirect patterns for endodontic post and core castings;

6. Fit trial endodontic filling points;

7. Apply etchant for bonding restorative materials.

(d) Settings. Registered dental hygienists in extended functions may undertake the duties authorized by this section in a treatment facility under the jurisdiction and control of the supervising licensed dentist, or an equivalent facility approved by the Board.

Registered Dental Hygienists in Alternative Practice

CCR Section 1090. RDHAP Duties and Settings.

(a) Unless specifically so provided by regulation, an RDHAP may not perform the following functions or any activity which represents the practice of dentistry or requires knowledge, skill and training of a licensed dentist:

1. Diagnosing and treatment planning;

2. Surgical or cutting procedures on hard or soft tissue;

3. Fitting and adjusting of correctional and prosthodontic appliances;

4. Prescribing medication;

5. Placing, condensing, carving or removal of permanent restorations, including final cementation procedures;

6. Irrigating and medicating canals, try-in cones, reaming, filing or filling of root canals;

7. Taking of impressions for prosthodontic appliances, bridges, or any other devices which may be worn in the mouth;

8. Administering local or general anesthesia, oral or parental conscious sedation.

(b) Under the supervision of a licensed dentist, an RDHAP may perform the duties assigned to registered dental hygienists by Section 1088, under the same levels of supervision and in the same settings as specified in that section, in addition to those duties permitted by Section 1768(b)(3).

(c) Independently and without the supervision of a licensed dentist, an RDHAP may, upon the prescription of a dentist or a physician and surgeon licensed in California, perform the duties assigned to a registered dental hygienist by Section 1088(c).

1. All prescriptions shall contain the following information:

1. The pre-printed name, address, license number, and signature of the prescribing dentist or physician and surgeon.

2. The name, address and phone number of the patient.

3. The date the services are prescribed and the expiration date of the prescription. The prescription shall be for dental hygiene services and, if necessary, include special instructions for the care of that patient.

Prior to the establishment of an independent practice, an RDHAP shall provide to the board documentation of an existing relationship with at least one dentist for referral, consultation, and emergency services [1].

3. LICENSURE

All individuals practicing dentistry in California, with the exception of unlicensed dental assistants, must hold a current, valid license issued by the Board; California does not grant reciprocity with other states or nations. The Act requires that dental professionals meet certain education requirements, submit the correct applications and fees, pass the appropriate examinations, and submit a set of fingerprints. Fingerprinting is also required for license renewal if not previously conducted by the California Department of Justice (DOJ) or if records no longer exist [21]. Fingerprinting within California must be conducted using the DOJ Live Scan system; fingerprint records from other institutions (e.g., Department of Motor Vehicles) are not suitable, although ink-on-card fingerprints made at a law enforcement agency are acceptable if unable to travel to California. The required fingerprint cards must be requested from the Dental Board by phone or email [21]. The fingerprints will be used to conduct a criminal history record check and a state and federal level criminal offender record information search.

Issuance, review, and revocation of RDH/RDHEF/RDHAP licenses and the development and administration of license examinations for these auxiliaries are handled by the Dental Hygiene Board of California. All other licensure, including that for RDAs/RDAEFs, is handled by the Dental Board (despite the existence of the Dental Assisting Council, whose purpose is to consider matters related to dental assisting practice and make recommendations to the board). Complaints, investigations, and enforcement are handled by either the Dental Hygiene Board or the Dental Board, according to profession, but the governing regulations and laws set forth in the California Dental Practice Act pertain to all dental professionals. Information about application for licensure to practice as a dentist or dental auxiliary can be found in CCR Section 1028 and CCR Sections 1076–1079.3, respectively. Specific information about the licensure application requirements and process for dentists and dental assistants can be found at https://www.dbc.ca.gov/applicants and for hygienists at https://www.dhbc.ca.gov/applicants.

Effective July 2012, application for licensure may be denied based on delinquent state tax payments [1]. Similarly, current licenses/certifications/registrations may be revoked for failure to pay taxes.

LICENSE RENEWAL

Licenses for all dental professions must be renewed every two years before the last day of the professional's birth month. Practicing without renewing after this date is considered practicing without a license [1]. It is required that dentists have completed 50 hours of continuing education and dental auxiliaries (excluding RDHAPs) have completed 25 hours of continuing education (maximum of 25 hours and 12.5 hours of home study, respectively) upon renewal submission. The continuing education requirement is 35 hours for RDHAPs. Coursework regarding the Dental Practice Act, infection control, and basic life support is mandatory every two years for all licensees. To receive credit, all courses must be from Board-approved providers. In addition, the Board has identified topics that may only constitute a portion of the full continuing education requirement or that are not acceptable at all. A complete listing of allowable and non-allowable courses is available on the Board website.

Links to information regarding license renewal for dentists and dental assistants can be found at https://www.dbc.ca.gov/licensees, and renewal information for hygienists can be found at https://www.dhbc.ca.gov/licensees/renewals.

ACTS LEADING TO SUSPENSION OF A LICENSE AND IN VIOLATION OF THE DENTAL PRACTICE ACT

Violations of the Act by Board licensees are grounds for suspension of a license/certification and are handled by the Board's Enforcement Program, which is composed of five sections: complaint intake, complaint analysis, inspection, investigation, and probation [22]. Complaints originate from many sources, including dental professionals, healthcare providers, insurance companies, law enforcement agencies, and patients. Complaint intake specialists route these to the appropriate section; for example, an allegation of an unsafe or unsanitary office condition is routed to the inspection section, whereby Board enforcement inspectors may be sent out and are authorized to issue citations and fines. In addition to Board enforcement action, other law enforcement or regulatory agencies are involved when indicated [1]. Dental professionals placed on probation status by the Board for violations of the Act are monitored by the Enforcement Program's probation section. The Board's Enforcement Unit may be contacted at (916) 274-6326. Violations of the Act by hygienists are handled by the Hygiene Board's Complaint Unit, which operates in a similar manner and can be contacted at (866) 810-9899 or by email at DHBCEnforcement@dca.ca.gov.

According to CBPC Section 1670.1, conviction of crimes committed by dental professionals outside of the workplace may also be grounds for Board discipline and can impact licensure status if the crime is "substantially related to the qualifications, functions, or duties of a dentist or dental assistant licensed under this chapter" [1]. These vary considerably on a case-by-case basis. Various lesser convictions, for example, driving under the influence (DUI), illicit drug possession, and prescription drug diversion, may not necessarily lead to license revocation provided the proper steps are taken toward remediation (e.g., entering the Board diversion program, submitting to periodic drug testing) [23]. In general, convictions for assaults, sex crimes, multiple misdemeanors (e.g., second DUI/controlled substance charge), and other egregious violations constitute a basis for denial or revocation of licenses or certifications. In addition to violations outside the workplace, unprofessional conduct, in its many forms, is grounds for Board Enforcement action. Acts and omissions that characterize unprofessional conduct are covered extensively in CBPC Sections 1680, 1681, and 1682 and CCR Section 1018.05.

CBPC Section 1680. Unprofessional conduct by a person licensed under this chapter is defined as, but is not limited to, any one of the following:

(a) The obtaining of any fee by fraud or misrepresentation.

(b) The employment directly or indirectly of any student or suspended or unlicensed dentist to practice dentistry as defined in this chapter.

(c) The aiding or abetting of any unlicensed person to practice dentistry.

(d) The aiding or abetting of a licensed person to practice dentistry unlawfully.

(e) The committing of any act or acts of sexual abuse, misconduct, or relations with a patient that are substantially related to the practice of dentistry.

(f) The use of any false, assumed, or fictitious name, either as an individual, firm, corporation, or otherwise, or any name other than the name under which the person is licensed to practice, in advertising or in any other manner indicating that the person is practicing or will practice dentistry, except that name as is specified in a valid permit issued pursuant to Section 1701.5.

(g) The practice of accepting or receiving any commission or the rebating in any form or manner of fees for professional services, radiograms, prescriptions, or other services or articles supplied to patients.

(h) The making use by the licensee or any agent of the licensee of any advertising statements of a character tending to deceive or mislead the public.

(i) The advertising of either professional superiority or the advertising of performance of professional services in a superior manner. This subdivision shall not prohibit advertising permitted by subdivision (h) of Section 651.

(j) The employing or the making use of solicitors.

(k) The advertising in violation of Section 651.

(l) The advertising to guarantee any dental service, or to perform any dental operation painlessly. This subdivision shall not prohibit advertising permitted by Section 651.

(m) The violation of any of the provisions of law regulating the procurement, dispensing, or administration of dangerous drugs, as defined in Chapter 9 (commencing with Section 4000) or controlled substances, as defined in Division 10 (commencing with Section 11000) of the Health and Safety Code.

(n) The violation of any of the provisions of this division.

(o) The permitting of any person to operate dental radiographic equipment who has not met the requirements of Section 1656.

(p) The clearly excessive prescribing or administering of drugs or treatment, or the clearly excessive use of diagnostic procedures, or the clearly excessive use of diagnostic or treatment facilities, as determined by the customary practice and standards of the dental profession. Any person who violates this subdivision is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars ($100) or more than six hundred dollars ($600), or by imprisonment for a term of not less than 60 days or more than 180 days, or by both a fine and imprisonment.

(q) The use of threats or harassment against any patient or licensee for providing evidence in any possible or actual disciplinary action, or other legal action; or the discharge of an employee primarily based on the employee's attempt to comply with the provisions of this chapter or to aid in the compliance.

(r) Suspension or revocation of a license issued, or discipline imposed, by another state or territory on grounds that would be the basis of discipline in this state.

(s) The alteration of a patient's record with intent to deceive.

(t) Unsanitary or unsafe office conditions, as determined by the customary practice and standards of the dental profession.

(u) The abandonment of the patient by the licensee, without written notice to the patient that treatment is to be discontinued and before the patient has ample opportunity to secure the services of another dentist, registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions and provided the health of the patient is not jeopardized.

(v) The willful misrepresentation of facts relating to a disciplinary action to the patients of a disciplined licensee.

(w) Use of fraud in the procurement of any license issued pursuant to this chapter.

(x) Any action or conduct that would have warranted the denial of the license.

(y) The aiding or abetting of a licensed dentist, dental assistant, registered dental assistant, registered dental assistant in extended functions, dental sedation assistant permitholder, orthodontic assistant permitholder, registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions to practice dentistry in a negligent or incompetent manner.

(z)

1. The failure to report to the board in writing within seven days any of the following:

1. the death of the licensee's patient during the performance of any dental or dental hygiene procedure;

2. the discovery of the death of a patient whose death is related to a dental or dental hygiene procedure performed by the licensee; or

3. except for a scheduled hospitalization, the removal to a hospital or emergency center for medical treatment of any patient to whom oral conscious sedation, conscious sedation, or general anesthesia was administered, or any patient as a result of dental or dental hygiene treatment. With the exception of patients to whom oral conscious sedation, conscious sedation, or general anesthesia was administered, removal to a hospital or emergency center that is the normal or expected treatment for the underlying dental condition is not required to be reported. Upon receipt of a report pursuant to this subdivision the board may conduct an inspection of the dental office if the board finds that it is necessary. A dentist shall report to the board all deaths occurring in the licensee's practice with a copy sent to the Dental Hygiene Board of California if the death was the result of treatment by a registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions. A registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions shall report to the Dental Hygiene Board of California all deaths occurring as the result of dental hygiene treatment, and a copy of the notification shall be sent to the board.

2. The report required by this subdivision shall be on a form or forms approved by the board. The form or forms approved by the board shall require the licensee to include, but not be limited to, the following information for cases in which patients received anesthesia: the date of the procedure; the patient's age in years and months, weight, and sex; the patient's American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status; the patient's primary diagnosis; the patient's coexisting diagnoses; the procedures performed; the sedation setting; the medications used; the monitoring equipment used; the category of the provider responsible for sedation oversight; the category of the provider delivering sedation; the category of the provider monitoring the patient during sedation; whether the person supervising the sedation performed one or more of the procedures; the planned airway management; the planned depth of sedation; the complications that occurred; a description of what was unexpected about the airway management; whether there was transportation of the patient during sedation; the category of the provider conducting resuscitation measures; and the resuscitation equipment utilized. Disclosure of individually identifiable patient information shall be consistent with applicable law. A report required by this subdivision shall not be admissible in any action brought by a patient of the licensee providing the report.

3. For the purposes of paragraph (2), categories of provider are: General Dentist, Pediatric Dentist, Oral Surgeon, Dentist Anesthesiologist, Physician Anesthesiologist, Dental Assistant, Registered Dental Assistant, Dental Sedation Assistant, Registered Nurse, Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist, or Other.

4. The form shall state that this information shall not be considered an admission of guilt, but is for educational, data, or investigative purposes.

5. The board may assess a penalty on any licensee who fails to report an instance of an adverse event as required by this subdivision. The licensee may dispute the failure to file within 10 days of receiving notice that the board had assessed a penalty against the licensee.

(aa) Participating in or operating any group advertising and referral services that are in violation of Section 650.2.

(ab) The failure to use a fail-safe machine with an appropriate exhaust system in the administration of nitrous oxide. The board shall, by regulation, define what constitutes a fail-safe machine.

(ac) Engaging in the practice of dentistry with an expired license.

(ad) Except for good cause, the knowing failure to protect patients by failing to follow infection control guidelines of the board, thereby risking transmission of bloodborne infectious diseases from dentist, dental assistant, registered dental assistant, registered dental assistant in extended functions, dental sedation assistant permitholder, orthodontic assistant permitholder, registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions to patient, from patient to patient, and from patient to dentist, dental assistant, registered dental assistant, registered dental assistant in extended functions, dental sedation assistant permitholder, orthodontic assistant permitholder, registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions. In administering this subdivision, the board shall consider referencing the standards, regulations, and guidelines of the State Department of Public Health developed pursuant to Section 1250.11 of the Health and Safety Code and the standards, guidelines, and regulations pursuant to the California Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1973 (Part 1 (commencing with Section 6300) of Division 5 of the Labor Code) for preventing the transmission of HIV, hepatitis B, and other blood-borne pathogens in health care settings. The board shall review infection control guidelines, if necessary, on an annual basis and proposed changes shall be reviewed by the Dental Hygiene Board of California to establish a consensus. The Board shall submit any recommended changes to the infection control guidelines for review to establish a consensus. As necessary, the board shall consult with the Medical Board of California, the California Board of Podiatric Medicine, the Board of Registered Nursing, and the Board of Vocational Nursing and Psychiatric Technicians, to encourage appropriate consistency in the implementation of this subdivision.

The board shall seek to ensure that all appropriate dental personnel are informed of the responsibility to follow infection control guidelines, and of the most recent scientifically recognized safeguards for minimizing the risk of transmission of bloodborne infectious diseases.

(ae) The utilization by a licensed dentist of any person to perform the functions of any registered dental assistant, registered dental assistant in extended functions, dental sedation assistant permitholder, orthodontic assistant permitholder, registered dental hygienist, registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, or registered dental hygienist in extended functions who, at the time of initial employment, does not possess a current, valid license or permit to perform those functions.

(af) The prescribing, dispensing, or furnishing of dangerous drugs or devices, as defined in Section 4022, in violation of Section 2242.1.

(ag) Using water, or other methods used for irrigation, that are not sterile or that do not contain recognized disinfecting or antibacterial properties when performing dental procedures on exposed dental pulp.

(ah) The failure by the treating dentist, prior to the initial diagnosis and correction of malpositions of human teeth or initial use of orthodontic appliances, to perform an examination pursuant to subdivision (b) of Section 1684.5, including the review of the patient's most recent diagnostic digital or conventional radiographs or other equivalent bone imaging suitable for orthodontia. New radiographs or other equivalent bone imaging shall be ordered if deemed appropriate by the treating dentist.

Section 1681. In addition to other acts constituting unprofessional conduct within the meaning of this chapter, it is unprofessional conduct for a person licensed under this chapter to do any of the following:

(a) Obtain or possess in violation of law, or except as directed by a licensed physician and surgeon, dentist, or podiatrist, administer to himself, any controlled substance, as defined in Division 10 (commencing with Section 11000) of the Health and Safety Code, or any dangerous drug as defined in Article 8 (commencing with Section 4211) of Chapter 9.

(b) Use any controlled substance, as defined in Division 10 (commencing with Section 11000) of the Health and Safety Code, or any dangerous drug as defined in Article 8 (commencing with Section 4211) of Chapter 9, or alcoholic beverages or other intoxicating substances, to an extent or in a manner dangerous or injurious to himself, to any person, or the public to the extent that such use impairs his ability to conduct with safety to the public the practice authorized by his license.

(c) The conviction of a charge of violating any federal statute or rules, or any statute or rule of this state, regulating controlled substances, as defined in Division 10 (commencing with Section 11000) of the Health and Safety Code, or any dangerous drug, as defined in Article 8 (commencing with Section 4211) of Chapter 9, or the conviction of more than one misdemeanor, or any felony, involving the use or consumption of alcohol or drugs, if the conviction is substantially related to the practice authorized by his license. The record of conviction or certified copy thereof, certified by the clerk of the court or by the judge in whose court the conviction is had, shall be conclusive evidence of a violation of this section; a plea or verdict of guilty or a conviction following a plea of nolo contendere is deemed to be a conviction within the meaning of this section; the board may order the license suspended or revoked, or may decline to issue a license, when the time for appeal has elapsed or the judgment of conviction has been affirmed on appeal, or when an order granting probation is made suspending imposition of sentence, irrespective of a subsequent order under any provision of the Penal Code, including, but not limited to, Section 1203.4 of the Penal Code, allowing such person to withdraw his plea of guilty and to enter a plea of not guilty, or setting aside the verdict of guilty, or dismissing the accusation, information or indictment.

Section 1682. In addition to other acts constituting unprofessional conduct under this chapter, it is unprofessional conduct for:

(a) Any dentist performing dental procedures to have more than one patient undergoing moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia on an outpatient basis at any given time unless each patient is being continuously monitored on a one-to-one ratio while sedated by either the dentist or another licensed health professional authorized by law to administer moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia.

(b) Any dentist with patients recovering from moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia to fail to have the patients closely monitored by licensed health professionals experienced in the care and resuscitation of patients recovering from moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia. If one licensed professional is responsible for the recovery care of more than one patient at a time, all of the patients shall be physically in the same room to allow continuous visual contact with all patients and the patient to recovery staff ratio should not exceed three to one.

(c) Any dentist with patients who are undergoing deep sedation, general anesthesia, or moderate sedation to fail to have these patients continuously monitored during the dental procedure with a pulse oximeter or similar or superior monitoring equipment and ventilation continuously monitored using at least two of the three following methods:

1. Auscultation of breath sounds using a precordial stethoscope.

2. Monitoring for the presence of exhaled carbon dioxide with capnography.

3. Verbal communication with a patient under moderate sedation. This method shall not be used for a patient under deep sedation or general anesthesia.

(d) Any dentist with patients who are undergoing moderate sedation to have dental office personnel directly involved with the care of those patients who are not certified in basic cardiac life support (CPR) and recertified biennially.

(e)

1. Any dentist to fail to obtain the written informed consent of a patient prior to administering moderate sedation, deep sedation, general anesthesia. In the case of a minor, the consent shall be obtained from the child's parent or guardian.

2. The written informed consent for general anesthesia, in the case of a minor, shall include, but not be limited to, the following information:
"The administration and monitoring of deep sedation or general anesthesia may vary depending on the type of procedure, the type of practitioner, the age and health of the patient, and the setting in which anesthesia is provided. Risks may vary with each specific situation. You are encouraged to explore all the options available for your child's anesthesia for their dental treatment, and consult with your dentist, family physician, or pediatrician as needed."

3. Nothing in this subdivision shall be construed to establish the reasonable standard of care for administering or monitoring oral moderate sedation, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia.

Section 1683. (a) Every dentist, dental health professional, or other licensed health professional who performs a service on a patient in a dental office shall identify himself or herself in the patient record by signing his or her name, or an identification number and initials, next to the service performed and shall date those treatment entries in the record. Any person licensed under this chapter who owns, operates, or manages a dental office shall ensure compliance with this requirement.

(b) Repeated violations of this section constitute unprofessional conduct.

Section 1683.1 (a) Any individual, partnership, corporation, or other entity that provides dental services through telehealth shall make available the name, telephone number, practice address, and California state license number of any dentist who will be involved in the provision of services to a patient prior to the rendering of services and when requested by a patient.

(b) A violation of this section shall constitute unprofessional conduct.

Section 1684. In addition to other acts constituting unprofessional conduct under this chapter, it is unprofessional conduct for a person licensed under this chapter to perform, or hold himself or herself out as able to perform, professional services beyond the scope of his or her license and field or fields of competence as established by his or her education, experience, training, or any combination thereof. This includes, but is not limited to, the use of any instrument or device in a manner that is not in accordance with the customary standards and practices of the dental profession. This section shall not apply to research conducted by accredited dental schools or colleges, or to research conducted pursuant to an investigational device exemption issued by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

1684.5. (a) In addition to other acts constituting unprofessional conduct under this chapter, it is unprofessional conduct for any dentist to perform or allow to be performed any treatment on a patient who is not a patient of record of that dentist. A dentist may, however, after conducting a preliminary oral examination, require or permit any dental auxiliary to perform procedures necessary for diagnostic purposes, provided that the procedures are permitted under the auxiliary's authorized scope of practice. Additionally, a dentist may require or permit a dental auxiliary to perform all of the following duties prior to any examination of the patient by the dentist, provided that the duties are authorized for the particular classification of dental auxiliary pursuant to Article 7 (commencing with Section 1740):

1. Expose emergency radiographs upon direction of the dentist.

2. If the dental auxiliary is a registered dental assistant in extended functions, a registered dental hygienist, or a registered dental hygienist in alternative practice, determine and perform radiographs for the specific purpose of aiding a dentist in completing a comprehensive diagnosis and treatment plan for a patient using telehealth, as defined by Section 2290.5, for the purpose of communication with the supervising dentist pursuant to Sections 1753.55, 1910.5, and 1926.05. A dentist is not required to review patient records or make a diagnosis using telehealth.

3. Perform extra-oral duties or functions specified by the dentist.

4. Perform mouth-mirror inspections of the oral cavity, to include charting of obvious lesions, malocclusions, existing restorations, and missing teeth.

(b) For purposes of this section, "patient of record" refers to a patient who has been examined, has had a medical and dental history completed and evaluated, and has had oral conditions diagnosed and a written plan developed by the licensed dentist.

(c) For purposes of this section, if dental treatment is provided to a patient by a registered dental assistant in extended functions, a registered dental hygienist, or a registered dental hygienist in alternative practice pursuant to the diagnosis and treatment plan authorized by a supervising dentist, at a location other than the dentist's practice location, it is the responsibility of the authorizing dentist that the patient or the patient's representative receive written notification that the care was provided at the direction of the authorizing dentist and that the notification include the authorizing dentist's name, practice location address, and telephone number. This provision shall not require patient notification for dental hygiene preventive services provided in public health programs as specified and authorized in Section 1911, or for dental hygiene care when provided as specified and authorized in Section 1926.

(d) A dentist shall not concurrently supervise more than a total of five registered dental assistants in extended functions, registered dental hygienists, or registered dental hygienists in alternative practice providing services pursuant to Sections 1753.55, 1910.5, and 1926.05.

(e) This section shall not apply to dentists providing examinations on a temporary basis outside of a dental office in settings including, but not limited to, health fairs and school screenings.

(f) This section shall not apply to fluoride mouth rinse or supplement programs administered in a school or preschool setting.

Section 1685. In addition to other acts constituting unprofessional conduct under this chapter, it is unprofessional conduct for a person licensed under this chapter to require, either directly or through an office policy, or knowingly permit the delivery of dental care that discourages necessary treatment or permits clearly excessive treatment, incompetent treatment, grossly negligent treatment, repeated negligent acts, or unnecessary treatment, as determined by the standard of practice in the community.

CCR Section 1018.05 Unprofessional Conduct Defined. In addition to those acts detailed in Business and Professions Code Sections 1670, 1680, 1681 and 1682, the following shall also constitute unprofessional conduct:

(a) Failure to provide records requested by the Board within 15 days of the date of receipt of the request or within the time specified in the request, whichever is later, unless the licensee is unable to provide the documents within this time period for good cause. For the purposes of this section, "good cause" includes physical inability to access the records in the time allowed due to illness or travel.

(b) Failure to report to the Board, within 30 days, any of the following:

1. The bringing of an indictment or information charging a felony against the licensee.

2. The conviction of the licensee, including any verdict of guilty, or pleas of guilty or no contest, of any felony or misdemeanor.

3. Any disciplinary action taken by another professional licensing entity or authority of this state or of another state or an agency of the federal government or the United States military.

4. For the purposes of this section, "conviction" means a plea or verdict of guilty or a conviction following a plea of nolo contendere or "no contest" and any conviction that has been set aside or deferred pursuant to Sections 1000 or 1203.4 of the Penal Code, including infractions, misdemeanors, and felonies. "Conviction" does not include traffic infractions with a fine of less than one thousand dollars ($1,000) unless the infraction involved alcohol or controlled substances.

4. VIOLATIONS AND PENALTIES

As discussed, various acts or omissions can be cause for revocation or suspension of a license. Violation of any section of the Dental Practice Act can also lead to civil and criminal prosecution, including [1]:

Section 1700. Any person, company, or association is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by imprisonment in the county jail not less than 10 days nor more than one year, or by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars ($100) nor more than one thousand five hundred dollars ($1,500), or by both fine and imprisonment, who:

(a) Assumes the degree of "doctor of dental surgery," "doctor of dental science," or "doctor of dental medicine" or appends the letters "DDS," or "DDSc" or "DMD" to his or her name without having had the right to assume the title conferred upon him or her by diploma from a recognized dental college or school legally empowered to confer the same.

(b) Assumes any title, or appends any letters to his or her name, with the intent to represent falsely that he or she has received a dental degree or license.

(c) Engages in the practice of dentistry without causing to be displayed in a conspicuous place in his or her office the name of each and every person employed there in the practice of dentistry.

(d) Within 10 days after demand is made by the executive officer of the board, fails to furnish to the board the name and address of all persons practicing or assisting in the practice of dentistry in the office of the person, company, or association, at any time within 60 days prior to the demand, together with a sworn statement showing under and by what license or authority this person, company, or association and any employees are or have been practicing dentistry. This sworn statement shall not be used in any prosecution under this section.

(e) Is under the influence of alcohol or a controlled substance while engaged in the practice of dentistry in actual attendance on patients to an extent that impairs his or her ability to conduct the practice of dentistry with safety to patients and the public.

Section 1700.5. Notwithstanding Section 1700, any person who holds a valid, unrevoked, and unsuspended certificate as a dentist under this chapter may append the letters "DDS" to his or her name, regardless of the degree conferred upon him or her by the dental college from which the licensee graduated.

Section 1701. Any person is for the first offense guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punishable by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars ($200) or more than three thousand dollars ($3,000), or by imprisonment in a county jail for not to exceed six months, or both, and for the second or a subsequent offense is guilty of a felony and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than two thousand dollars ($2,000) nor more than six thousand dollars ($6,000), or by imprisonment pursuant to subdivision (h) of Section 1170 of the Penal Code, or by both such fine and imprisonment, who:

(a) Sells or barters or offers to sell or barter any dental degree or any license or transcript made or purporting to be made pursuant to the laws regulating the license and registration of dentists.

(b) Purchases or procures by barter any such diploma, license or transcript with intent that the same shall be used in evidence of the holder's qualification to practice dentistry, or in fraud of the laws regulating such practice.

(c) With fraudulent intent, makes or attempts to make, counterfeits or alters in a material regard any such diploma, certificate or transcript.

(d) Uses, attempts or causes to be used, any such diploma, certificate or transcript which has been purchased, fraudulently issued, counterfeited or materially altered, either as a license to practice dentistry, or in order to procure registration as a dentist.

(e) In an affidavit, required of an applicant for examination, license or registration under this chapter, willfully makes a false statement in a material regard.

(f) Practices dentistry or offers to practice dentistry as it is defined in this chapter, either without a license, or when his license has been revoked or suspended.

(g) Under any false, assumed or fictitious name, either as an individual, firm, corporation or otherwise, or any name other than the name under which he is licensed, practices, advertises or in any other manner indicates that he is practicing or will practice dentistry, except such name as is specified in a valid permit issued pursuant to Section 1701.5.

Section 1701.1. (a) Notwithstanding Sections 1700 and 1701, a person who willfully, under circumstances or conditions that cause or create risk of bodily harm, serious physical or mental illness, or death, practices or attempts to practice, or advertises or holds himself or herself out as practicing dentistry without having at the time of so doing a valid, unrevoked, and unsuspended certificate, license, registration, or permit as provided in this chapter, or without being authorized to perform that act pursuant to a certificate, license, registration, or permit obtained in accordance with some other provision of law, is guilty of a public offense, punishable by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars ($10,000), by imprisonment pursuant to subdivision (h) of Section 1170 of the Penal Code, by imprisonment in a county jail not exceeding one year, or by both the fine and either imprisonment.

(b) A person who conspires with or aids and abets another to commit any act described in subdivision (a) is guilty of a public offense and subject to the punishment described in subdivision (a).

(c) The remedy provided in this section shall not preclude any other remedy provided by law.

5. LAWS GOVERNING THE PRESCRIPTION OF DRUGS

The California Dental Practice Act states that only doctors of dentistry are permitted to prescribe drugs, including analgesics, sedatives, and antibiotics, although prescription of oral conscious sedation to children younger than 13 years of age requires a permit. Dental assistants and dental hygienists are not permitted to write prescriptions [1]. There are many federal and state laws and regulations pertaining to prescribing. It is the responsibility of each Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)-registered prescriber (or those exempted) to be familiar with and maintain knowledge of all applicable laws and regulations. Pertinent citations of federal laws governing the prescription of controlled substances are included in the DEA Practitioner's Manual, available at https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals. The California Uniform Controlled Substances Act (part of the California Health and Safety Code) can be found at https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codesTOCSelected.xhtml?tocCode=HSC. The Substances Act begins at Section 11000, and information regarding prescriptions begins in Section 11150.

There must be careful consideration when prescribing to addicts or suspected addicts, particularly when patients are requesting specific drugs. As of 2016, California legislation requires that all prescribers of controlled substances register to access CURES, the state prescription drug monitoring program database intended to aid prescribers and dispensers in identifying fraudulent activity, thereby reducing prescription drug abuse and diversion without affecting legitimate medical practice or patient care. As of October 2018, all licensees authorized to prescribe, order, administer, furnish or dispense controlled substances in California must, with some exceptions, check a patient's prescription history in CURES 2.0 before prescribing a Schedule II, III, or IV substance [27].

The following section of the California Business and Professional Code addresses unprofessional conduct related to furnishing prescription drugs and excessive prescribing.

Section 725. (a) Repeated acts of clearly excessive prescribing, furnishing, dispensing, or administering of drugs or treatment, repeated acts of clearly excessive use of diagnostic procedures, or repeated acts of clearly excessive use of diagnostic or treatment facilities as determined by the standard of the community of licensees is unprofessional conduct for a physician and surgeon, dentist, podiatrist, psychologist, physical therapist, chiropractor, optometrist, speech-language pathologist, or audiologist.

(b) Any person who engages in repeated acts of clearly excessive prescribing or administering of drugs or treatment is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars ($100) nor more than six hundred dollars ($600), or by imprisonment for a term of not less than 60 days nor more than 180 days, or by both that fine and imprisonment.

(c) A practitioner who has a medical basis for prescribing, furnishing, dispensing, or administering dangerous drugs or prescription controlled substances shall not be subject to disciplinary action or prosecution under this section.

(d) No physician and surgeon shall be subject to disciplinary action pursuant to this section for treating intractable pain in compliance with Section 2241.5.

The following sections of the Uniform Controlled Substances Act addresses the facilitation of abuse by prescribing practices, including the new CURES reporting requirements.

Section 11150.2. (a) Notwithstanding any other law, if cannabinoids are excluded from Schedule I of the federal Controlled Substances Act and placed on a schedule of the act other than Schedule I, or if a product composed of cannabinoids is approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration and either placed on a schedule of the act other than Schedule I, or exempted from one or more provisions of the act, so as to permit a physician, pharmacist, or other authorized healing arts licensee acting within their scope of practice, to prescribe, furnish, or dispense that product, the physician, pharmacist, or other authorized healing arts licensee who prescribes, furnishes, or dispenses that product in accordance with federal law shall be deemed to be in compliance with state law governing those acts.

(b) For purposes of this chapter, upon the effective date of one of the changes in federal law described in subdivision (a), notwithstanding any other state law, a product composed of cannabinoids may be prescribed, furnished, dispensed, transferred, transported, possessed, or used in accordance with federal law and is authorized pursuant to state law.

(c) This section does not apply to any product containing cannabinoids that is made or derived from industrial hemp, as defined in Section 11018.5 and regulated pursuant to that section.

Section 11153. (a) A prescription for a controlled substance shall only be issued for a legitimate medical purpose by an individual practitioner acting in the usual course of his or her professional practice. The responsibility for the proper prescribing and dispensing of controlled substances is upon the prescribing practitioner, but a corresponding responsibility rests with the pharmacist who fills the prescription. Except as authorized by this division, the following are not legal prescriptions: (1) an order purporting to be a prescription which is issued not in the usual course of professional treatment or in legitimate and authorized research; or (2) an order for an addict or habitual user of controlled substances, which is issued not in the course of professional treatment or as part of an authorized narcotic treatment program, for the purpose of providing the user with controlled substances, sufficient to keep him or her comfortable by maintaining customary use.

(b) Any person who knowingly violates this section shall be punished by imprisonment pursuant to subdivision (h) of Section 1170 of the Penal Code, or in a county jail not exceeding one year, or by a fine not exceeding twenty thousand dollars ($20,000), or by both that fine and imprisonment.

(c) No provision of the amendments to this section enacted during the second year of the 1981–82 Regular Session shall be construed as expanding the scope of practice of a pharmacist.

Section 11164.1. (a)

1. Notwithstanding any other law, a prescription for a controlled substance issued by a prescriber in another state for delivery to a patient in another state may be dispensed by a California pharmacy, if the prescription conforms with the requirements for controlled substance prescriptions in the state in which the controlled substance was prescribed.

2. A prescription for Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substances dispensed pursuant to this subdivision shall be reported by the dispensing pharmacy to the Department of Justice in the manner prescribed by subdivision (d) of Section 11165.

(b) A pharmacy may dispense a prescription for a Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substance from an out-of-state prescriber pursuant to Section 4005 of the Business and Professions Code and Section 1717 of Title 16 of the California Code of Regulations.

(c) This section shall become operative on January 1, 2021.

Section 11165. (a) To assist health care practitioners in their efforts to ensure appropriate prescribing, ordering, administering, furnishing, and dispensing of controlled substances, law enforcement and regulatory agencies in their efforts to control the diversion and resultant abuse of Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, and Schedule V controlled substances, and for statistical analysis, education, and research, the Department of Justice shall, contingent upon the availability of adequate funds in the CURES Fund, maintain the Controlled Substance Utilization Review and Evaluation System (CURES) for the electronic monitoring of, and Internet access to information regarding, the prescribing and dispensing of Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, and Schedule V controlled substances by all practitioners authorized to prescribe, order, administer, furnish, or dispense these controlled substances.

(b) The Department of Justice may seek and use grant funds to pay the costs incurred by the operation and maintenance of CURES. The department shall annually report to the Legislature and make available to the public the amount and source of funds it receives for support of CURES.

(c)

1. The operation of CURES shall comply with all applicable federal and state privacy and security laws and regulations.

1. CURES shall operate under existing provisions of law to safeguard the privacy and confidentiality of patients. Data obtained from CURES shall only be provided to appropriate state, local, and federal public agencies for disciplinary, civil, or criminal purposes and to other agencies or entities, as determined by the department, for the purpose of educating practitioners and others in lieu of disciplinary, civil, or criminal actions. Data may be provided to public or private entities, as approved by the department, for educational, peer review, statistical, or research purposes, if patient information, including information that may identify the patient, is not compromised. The University of California shall be provided access to identifiable data for research purposes if the requirements of subdivision (t) of Section 1798.24 of the Civil Code are satisfied. Further, data disclosed to an individual or agency as described in this subdivision shall not be disclosed, sold, or transferred to a third party, unless authorized by, or pursuant to, state and federal privacy and security laws and regulations. The department shall establish policies, procedures, and regulations regarding the use, access, evaluation, management, implementation, operation, storage, disclosure, and security of the information within CURES, consistent with this subdivision.

2. Notwithstanding subparagraph (A), a regulatory board whose licensees do not prescribe, order, administer, furnish, or dispense controlled substances shall not be provided data obtained from CURES.

3. The department shall, no later than January 1, 2021, adopt regulations regarding the access and use of the information within CURES. The department shall consult with all stakeholders identified by the department during the rulemaking process. The regulations shall, at a minimum, address all of the following in a manner consistent with this chapter:

1. The process for approving, denying, and disapproving individuals or entities seeking access to information in CURES.

2. The purposes for which a health care practitioner may access information in CURES.

3. The conditions under which a warrant, subpoena, or court order is required for a law enforcement agency to obtain information from CURES as part of a criminal investigation.

4. The process by which information in CURES may be provided for educational, peer review, statistical, or research purposes.

4. In accordance with federal and state privacy laws and regulations, a health care practitioner may provide a patient with a copy of the patient's CURES patient activity report as long as no additional CURES data are provided and the health care practitioner keeps a copy of the report in the patient's medical record in compliance with subdivision (d) of Section 11165.1.

(d) For each prescription for a Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substance, as defined in the controlled substances schedules in federal law and regulations, specifically Sections 1308.12, 1308.13, 1308.14, and 1308.15, respectively, of Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations, the dispensing pharmacy, clinic, or other dispenser shall report the following information to the department or contracted prescription data processing vendor as soon as reasonably possible, but not more than one working day after the date a controlled substance is released to the patient or patient's representative, in a format specified by the department:

1. Full name, address, and, if available, telephone number of the ultimate user or research subject, or contact information as determined by the Secretary of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and the gender, and date of birth of the ultimate user.

2. The prescriber's category of licensure, license number, national provider identifier (NPI) number, if applicable, the federal controlled substance registration number, and the state medical license number of a prescriber using the federal controlled substance registration number of a government-exempt facility.

3. Pharmacy prescription number, license number, NPI number, and federal controlled substance registration number.

4. National Drug Code (NDC) number of the controlled substance dispensed.

5. Quantity of the controlled substance dispensed.

6. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD) Code contained in the most current ICD revision, or any revision deemed sufficient by the State Board of Pharmacy, if available.

7. Number of refills ordered.

8. Whether the drug was dispensed as a refill of a prescription or as a first-time request.

9. Prescribing date of the prescription.

10. Date of dispensing of the prescription.

11. The serial number for the corresponding prescription form, if applicable.

(e) The department may invite stakeholders to assist, advise, and make recommendations on the establishment of rules and regulations necessary to ensure the proper administration and enforcement of the CURES database. A prescriber or dispenser invitee shall be licensed by one of the boards or committees identified in subdivision (d) of Section 208 of the Business and Professions Code, in active practice in California, and a regular user of CURES.

(f) The department shall, prior to upgrading CURES, consult with prescribers licensed by one of the boards or committees identified in subdivision (d) of Section 208 of the Business and Professions Code, one or more of the boards or committees identified in subdivision (d) of Section 208 of the Business and Professions Code, and any other stakeholder identified by the department, for the purpose of identifying desirable capabilities and upgrades to the CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP).

(g) The department may establish a process to educate authorized subscribers of the CURES PDMP on how to access and use the CURES PDMP.

(h)

1. The department may enter into an agreement with an entity operating an interstate data sharing hub, or an agency operating a prescription drug monitoring program in another state, for purposes of interstate data sharing of prescription drug monitoring program information.

2. Data obtained from CURES may be provided to authorized users of another state's prescription drug monitoring program, as determined by the department pursuant to subdivision (c), if the entity operating the interstate data sharing hub, and the prescription drug monitoring program of that state, as applicable, have entered into an agreement with the department for interstate data sharing of prescription drug monitoring program information.

3. An agreement entered into by the department for purposes of interstate data sharing of prescription drug monitoring program information shall ensure that all access to data obtained from CURES and the handling of data contained within CURES comply with California law, including regulations, and meet the same patient privacy, audit, and data security standards employed and required for direct access to CURES.

4. For purposes of interstate data sharing of CURES information pursuant to this subdivision, an authorized user of another state's prescription drug monitoring program shall not be required to register with CURES, if the authorized user is registered and in good standing with that state's prescription drug monitoring program.

5. The department shall not enter into an agreement pursuant to this subdivision until the department has issued final regulations regarding the access and use of the information within CURES as required by paragraph (3) of subdivision (c).

(j) If the dispensing pharmacy, clinic, or other dispenser experiences a temporary technological or electrical failure, it shall, without undue delay, seek to correct any cause of the temporary technological or electrical failure that is reasonably within its control. The deadline for transmitting prescription information to the department or contracted prescription data processing vendor pursuant to subdivision (d) shall be extended until the failure is corrected. If the dispensing pharmacy, clinic, or other dispenser experiences technological limitations that are not reasonably within its control, or is impacted by a natural or manmade disaster, the deadline for transmitting prescription information to the department or contracted prescription data processing vendor shall be extended until normal operations have resumed.

Section 11165.1. (a)

1. A health care practitioner authorized to prescribe, order, administer, furnish, or dispense Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substances pursuant to Section 11150 shall, upon receipt of a federal Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) registration, submit an application developed by the department to obtain approval to electronically access information regarding the controlled substance history of a patient that is maintained by the department. Upon approval, the department shall release to that practitioner or their delegate the electronic history of controlled substances dispensed to an individual under the practitioner's care based on data contained in the CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP).

2. A pharmacist shall, upon licensure, submit an application developed by the department to obtain approval to electronically access information regarding the controlled substance history of a patient that is maintained by the department. Upon approval, the department shall release to the pharmacist or their delegate the electronic history of controlled substances dispensed to an individual under the pharmacist's care based on data contained in the CURES PDMP.

3. A licensed physician and surgeon who does not hold a DEA registration may submit an application developed by the department to obtain approval to electronically access information regarding the controlled substance history of the patient that is maintained by the department. Upon approval, the department shall release to the physician and surgeon or their delegate the electronic history of controlled substances dispensed to a patient under their care based on data contained in the CURES PDMP.

4. The department shall implement its duties described in clauses (i), (ii), and (iii) upon completion of any technological changes to the CURES database necessary to support clauses (i), (ii), and (iii), or by October 1, 2022, whichever is sooner.

2. The department may deny an application or suspend a subscriber, for reasons that include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. Materially falsifying an application to access information contained in the CURES database.

2. Failing to maintain effective controls for access to the patient activity report.

3. Having their federal DEA registration suspended or revoked.

4. Violating a law governing controlled substances or another law for which the possession or use of a controlled substance is an element of the crime.

5. Accessing information for a reason other than to diagnose or treat a patient, or to document compliance with the law.

3. An authorized subscriber shall notify the department within 30 days of a change to the subscriber account.

4. An approved health care practitioner, pharmacist, or a person acting on behalf of a health care practitioner or pharmacist pursuant to subdivision (b) of Section 209 of the Business and Professions Code may use the department's online portal or a health information technology system that meets the criteria required in subparagraph (E) to access information in the CURES database pursuant to this section. A subscriber who uses a health information technology system that meets the criteria required in subparagraph (E) to access the CURES database may submit automated queries to the CURES database that are triggered by predetermined criteria.

5. An approved health care practitioner or pharmacist may submit queries to the CURES database through a health information technology system if the entity that operates the health information technology system certifies all of the following:

1. The entity will not use or disclose data received from the CURES database for any purpose other than delivering the data to an approved health care practitioner or pharmacist or performing data processing activities that may be necessary to enable the delivery unless authorized by, and pursuant to, state and federal privacy and security laws and regulations.

2. The health information technology system will authenticate the identity of an authorized health care practitioner or pharmacist initiating queries to the CURES database and, at the time of the query to the CURES database, the health information technology system submits the following data regarding the query to CURES:

1. The date of the query.

2. The time of the query.

3. The first and last name of the patient queried.

4. The date of birth of the patient queried.

5. The identification of the CURES user for whom the system is making the query.

3. The health information technology system meets applicable patient privacy and information security requirements of state and federal law.

4. The entity has entered into a memorandum of understanding with the department that solely addresses the technical specifications of the health information technology system to ensure the security of the data in the CURES database and the secure transfer of data from the CURES database. The technical specifications shall be universal for all health information technology systems that establish a method of system integration to retrieve information from the CURES database. The memorandum of understanding shall not govern, or in any way impact or restrict, the use of data received from the CURES database or impose any additional burdens on covered entities in compliance with the regulations promulgated pursuant to the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 found in Parts 160 and 164 of Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

6. No later than October 1, 2018, the department shall develop a programming interface or other method of system integration to allow health information technology systems that meet the requirements in subparagraph (E) to retrieve information in the CURES database on behalf of an authorized health care practitioner or pharmacist.

7. The department shall not access patient-identifiable information in an entity's health information technology system.

8. An entity that operates a health information technology system that is requesting to establish an integration with the CURES database shall pay a reasonable fee to cover the cost of establishing and maintaining integration with the CURES database.

9. The department may prohibit integration or terminate a health information technology system's ability to retrieve information in the CURES database if the health information technology system fails to meet the requirements of subparagraph (E), or the entity operating the health information technology system does not fulfill its obligation under subparagraph (H).

2. A health care practitioner authorized to prescribe, order, administer, furnish, or dispense Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substances pursuant to Section 11150 or a pharmacist shall be deemed to have complied with paragraph (1) if the licensed health care practitioner or pharmacist has been approved to access the CURES database through the process developed pursuant to subdivision (a) of Section 209 of the Business and Professions Code.

(b) A request for, or release of, a controlled substance history pursuant to this section shall be made in accordance with guidelines developed by the department.

(c) In order to prevent the inappropriate, improper, or illegal use of Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V controlled substances, the department may initiate the referral of the history of controlled substances dispensed to an individual based on data contained in CURES to licensed health care practitioners, pharmacists, or both, providing care or services to the individual.

(d) The history of controlled substances dispensed to an individual based on data contained in CURES that is received by a practitioner or pharmacist from the department pursuant to this section is medical information subject to the provisions of the Confidentiality of Medical Information Act contained in Part 2.6 (commencing with Section 56) of Division 1 of the Civil Code.

(e) Information concerning a patient's controlled substance history provided to a practitioner or pharmacist pursuant to this section shall include prescriptions for controlled substances listed in Sections 1308.12, 1308.13, 1308.14, and 1308.15 of Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

(f) A health care practitioner, pharmacist, or a person acting on behalf of a health care practitioner or pharmacist, when acting with reasonable care and in good faith, is not subject to civil or administrative liability arising from false, incomplete, inaccurate, or misattributed information submitted to, reported by, or relied upon in the CURES database or for a resulting failure of the CURES database to accurately or timely report that information.

(g) For purposes of this section, the following terms have the following meanings:

1. "Automated basis" means using predefined criteria to trigger an automated query to the CURES database, which can be attributed to a specific health care practitioner or pharmacist.

2. "Department" means the Department of Justice.

3. "Entity" means an organization that operates, or provides or makes available, a health information technology system to a health care practitioner or pharmacist.

4. "Health information technology system" means an information processing application using hardware and software for the storage, retrieval, sharing of or use of patient data for communication, decisionmaking, coordination of care, or the quality, safety, or efficiency of the practice of medicine or delivery of health care services, including, but not limited to, electronic medical record applications, health information exchange systems, or other interoperable clinical or health care information system.

(h) This section shall become operative on July 1, 2021, or upon the date the department promulgates regulations to implement this section and posts those regulations on its Internet website, whichever date is earlier.

Section 11165.2. (a) The Department of Justice may conduct audits of the CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program system and its users.

(b) The Department of Justice may establish, by regulation, a system for the issuance to a CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program subscriber of a citation which may contain an order of abatement, or an order to pay an administrative fine assessed by the Department of Justice if the subscriber is in violation of any provision of this chapter or any regulation adopted by the Department of Justice pursuant to this chapter.

(c) The system shall contain the following provisions:

1. Citations shall be in writing and shall describe with particularity the nature of the violation, including specific reference to the provision of law or regulation of the department determined to have been violated.

2. Whenever appropriate, the citation shall contain an order of abatement establishing a reasonable time for abatement of the violation.

3. In no event shall the administrative fine assessed by the department exceed two thousand five hundred dollars ($2,500) for each violation. In assessing a fine, due consideration shall be given to the appropriateness of the amount of the fine with respect to such factors as the gravity of the violation, the good faith of the subscribers, and the history of previous violations.

4. An order of abatement or a fine assessment issued pursuant to a citation shall inform the subscriber that if the subscriber desires a hearing to contest the finding of a violation, a hearing shall be requested by written notice to the CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program within 30 days of the date of issuance of the citation or assessment. Hearings shall be held pursuant to Chapter 5 (commencing with Section 11500) of Part 1 of Division 3 of Title 2 of the Government Code.

5. In addition to requesting a hearing, the subscriber may, within 10 days after service of the citation, request in writing an opportunity for an informal conference with the department regarding the citation. At the conclusion of the informal conference, the department may affirm, modify, or dismiss the citation, including any fine levied or order of abatement issued. The decision shall be deemed to be a final order with regard to the citation issued, including the fine levied or the order of abatement which could include permanent suspension to the system, a monetary fine, or both, depending on the gravity of the violation. However, the subscriber does not waive its right to request a hearing to contest a citation by requesting an informal conference. If the citation is affirmed, a formal hearing may be requested within 30 days of the date the citation was affirmed. If the citation is dismissed after the informal conference, the request for a hearing on the matter of the citation shall be deemed to be withdrawn. If the citation, including any fine levied or order of abatement, is modified, the citation originally issued shall be considered withdrawn and a new citation issued. If a hearing is requested for a subsequent citation, it shall be requested within 30 days of service of that subsequent citation.

6. Failure of a subscriber to pay a fine within 30 days of the date of assessment or comply with an order of abatement within the fixed time, unless the citation is being appealed, may result in disciplinary action taken by the department. If a citation is not contested and a fine is not paid, the subscriber account will be terminated:

1. A citation may be issued without the assessment of an administrative fine.

2. Assessment of administrative fines may be limited to only particular violations of law or department regulations.

(d) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, if a fine is paid to satisfy an assessment based on the finding of a violation, payment of the fine shall be represented as a satisfactory resolution of the matter for purposes of public disclosure.

(e) Administrative fines collected pursuant to this section shall be deposited in the CURES Program Special Fund, available upon appropriation by the Legislature. These special funds shall provide support for costs associated with informal and formal hearings, maintenance, and updates to the CURES Prescription Drug Monitoring Program.

(f) The sanctions authorized under this section shall be separate from, and in addition to, any other administrative, civil, or criminal remedies; however, a criminal action may not be initiated for a specific offense if a citation has been issued pursuant to this section for that offense, and a citation may not be issued pursuant to this section for a specific offense if a criminal action for that offense has been filed.

(g) Nothing in this section shall be deemed to prevent the department from serving and prosecuting an accusation to suspend or revoke a subscriber if grounds for that suspension or revocation exist.

Section 11165.4. (a)

1. A health care practitioner authorized to prescribe, order, administer, or furnish a controlled substance shall consult the patient activity report or information from the patient activity report obtained from the CURES database to review a patient's controlled substance history for the past 12 months before prescribing a Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV controlled substance to the patient for the first time and at least once every six months thereafter if the prescriber renews the prescription and the substance remains part of the treatment of the patient.

2. If a health care practitioner authorized to prescribe, order, administer, or furnish a controlled substance is not required, pursuant to an exemption described in subdivision (c), to consult the patient activity report from the CURES database the first time the health care practitioner prescribes, orders, administers, or furnishes a controlled substance to a patient, the health care practitioner shall consult the patient activity report from the CURES database to review the patient's controlled substance history before subsequently prescribing a Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV controlled substance to the patient and at least once every six months thereafter if the prescriber renews the prescription and the substance remains part of the treatment of the patient.

3. A health care practitioner who did not directly access the CURES database to perform the required review of the controlled substance use report shall document in the patient's medical record that they reviewed the CURES database generated report within 24 hours of the controlled substance prescription that was provided to them by another authorized user of the CURES database.

2. For purposes of this paragraph, "first time" means the initial occurrence in which a health care practitioner, in their role as a health care practitioner, intends to prescribe, order, administer, or furnish a Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV controlled substance to a patient and has not previously prescribed a controlled substance to the patient.

2. A health care practitioner shall review a patient's controlled substance history that has been obtained from the CURES database no earlier than 24 hours, or the previous business day, before the health care practitioner prescribes, orders, administers, or furnishes a Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV controlled substance to the patient.

(b) The duty to consult the CURES database, as described in subdivision (a), does not apply to veterinarians or pharmacists.

(c) The duty to consult the CURES database, as described in subdivision (a), does not apply to a health care practitioner in any of the following circumstances:

1. If a health care practitioner prescribes, orders, or furnishes a controlled substance to be administered to a patient while the patient in any of the following facilities or during an emergency transfer between any of the following facilities, or for use while on facility premises:

1. A licensed clinic, as described in Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 1200) of Division 2.

2. An outpatient setting, as described in Chapter 1.3 (commencing with Section 1248) of Division 2.

3. A health facility, as described in Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 1250) of Division 2.

4. A county medical facility, as described in Chapter 2.5 (commencing with Section 1440) of Division 2.

5. Another medical facility, including, but not limited to, an office of a health care practitioner and an imaging center.

6. A correctional clinic, as described in Section 4187 of the Business and Professions Code, or a correctional pharmacy, as described in Section 4021.5 of the Business and Professions Code.

2. If a health care practitioner prescribes, orders, administers, or furnishes a controlled substance in the emergency department of a general acute care hospital and the quantity of the controlled substance does not exceed a nonrefillable seven-day supply of the controlled substance to be used in accordance with the directions for use.

3. If a health care practitioner prescribes, orders, administers, or furnishes a controlled substance to a patient as part of the patient's treatment for a surgical, radiotheraputic, or diagnostic procedure and the quantity of the controlled substance does not exceed a nonrefillable seven-day supply of the controlled substance to be used in accordance with the directions for use, in any of the following facilities:

1. A licensed clinic, as described in Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 1200) of Division 2.

2. An outpatient setting, as described in Chapter 1.3 (commencing with Section 1248) of Division 2.

3. A health facility, as described in Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 1250) of Division 2.

4. A county medical facility, as described in Chapter 2.5 (commencing with Section 1440) of Division 2.

5. A place of practice, as defined in Section 1658 of the Business and Professions Code.

6. Another medical facility where surgical procedures are permitted to take place, including, but not limited to, the office of a health care practitioner.

4. If a health care practitioner prescribes, orders, administers, or furnishes a controlled substance to a patient who is terminally ill, as defined in subdivision (c) of Section 11159.2.

1. If all of the following circumstances are satisfied:

1. It is not reasonably possible for a health care practitioner to access the information in the CURES database in a timely manner.

2. Another health care practitioner or designee authorized to access the CURES database is not reasonably available.

3. The quantity of controlled substance prescribed, ordered, administered, or furnished does not exceed a nonrefillable seven-day supply of the controlled substance to be used in accordance with the directions for use and no refill of the controlled substance is allowed.

2. A health care practitioner who does not consult the CURES database under subparagraph (A) shall document the reason they did not consult the database in the patient's medical record.

6. If the CURES database is not operational, as determined by the department, or cannot be accessed by a health care practitioner because of a temporary technological or electrical failure. A health care practitioner shall, without undue delay, seek to correct the cause of the temporary technological or electrical failure that is reasonably within the health care practitioner's control.

7. If the CURES database cannot be accessed because of technological limitations that are not reasonably within the control of a health care practitioner.

8. If consultation of the CURES database would, as determined by the health care practitioner, result in a patient's inability to obtain a prescription in a timely manner and thereby adversely impact the patient's medical condition, provided that the quantity of the controlled substance does not exceed a nonrefillable seven-day supply if the controlled substance were used in accordance with the directions for use.

(d)

1. A health care practitioner who fails to consult the CURES database, as described in subdivision (a), shall be referred to the appropriate state professional licensing board solely for administrative sanctions, as deemed appropriate by that board.

2. This section does not create a private cause of action against a health care practitioner. This section does not limit a health care practitioner's liability for the negligent failure to diagnose or treat a patient.

(e) All applicable state and federal privacy laws govern the duties required by this section.

(f) The provisions of this section are severable. If any provision of this section or its application is held invalid, that invalidity shall not affect other provisions or applications that can be given effect without the invalid provision or application.

(g) This section shall become operative on July 1, 2021, or upon the date the department promulgates regulations to implement this section and posts those regulations on its internet website, whichever date is earlier.

6. REPORTING OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT

In accordance with California Penal Code Section 11165.7, dentists, dental assistants, and dental hygienists are mandated reporters of child abuse and neglect [3]. Reporting suspected abuse is not only an ethical duty but is also a legal obligation.

CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT REPORTING LAW

Section 11164. (a) This article shall be known and may be cited as the Child Abuse and Neglect Reporting Act.

(b) The intent and purpose of this article is to protect children from abuse and neglect. In any investigation of suspected child abuse or neglect, all persons participating in the investigation of the case shall consider the needs of the child victim and shall do whatever is necessary to prevent psychological harm to the child victim.

Section 11166. (a) Except as provided in subdivision (d), and in Section 11166.05, a mandated reporter shall make a report to an agency specified in Section 11165.9 whenever the mandated reporter, in the mandated reporter's professional capacity or within the scope of the mandated reporter's employment, has knowledge of or observes a child whom the mandated reporter knows or reasonably suspects has been the victim of child abuse or neglect. The mandated reporter shall make an initial report by telephone to the agency immediately or as soon as is practicably possible, and shall prepare and send, fax, or electronically transmit a written follow-up report within 36 hours of receiving the information concerning the incident. The mandated reporter may include with the report any nonprivileged documentary evidence the mandated reporter possesses relating to the incident.

Section 11165.9. Reports of suspected child abuse or neglect shall be made by mandated reporters, or in the case of reports pursuant to Section 11166.05, may be made, to any police department or sheriff's department, not including a school district police or security department, county probation department, if designated by the county to receive mandated reports, or the county welfare department. Any of those agencies shall accept a report of suspected child abuse or neglect whether offered by a mandated reporter or another person, or referred by another agency, even if the agency to whom the report is being made lacks subject matter or geographical jurisdiction to investigate the reported case, unless the agency can immediately electronically transfer the call to an agency with proper jurisdiction. When an agency takes a report about a case of suspected child abuse or neglect in which that agency lacks jurisdiction, the agency shall immediately refer the case by telephone, fax, or electronic transmission to an agency with proper jurisdiction. Agencies that are required to receive reports of suspected child abuse or neglect may not refuse to accept a report of suspected child abuse or neglect from a mandated reporter or another person unless otherwise authorized pursuant to this section, and shall maintain a record of all reports received.

IDENTIFYING, DOCUMENTING, AND REPORTING ABUSE AND NEGLECT

Preventing serious morbidity and mortality involves intervening at the first suspicion or indication of abuse and/or neglect. Dentists and dental hygienists are often the healthcare professionals who have the most frequent interactions with children and should be attentive to any signs of neglect and physical abuse—as abusive injuries commonly involve the face, jaw, mouth, teeth, and tongue [4]. One study found that orofacial trauma was concurrent with 49% of documented cases of child physical abuse [5]. Other studies show that craniofacial and neck injuries occur in 50% to 65% of child abuse victims and that the lips are a site for abusive injury in 54% of cases [6,7].

Clinical Signs of Abuse

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect and the California Dental Association have published useful articles regarding the identification of the orofacial signs of abuse and particular injuries of concern. According to these sources, possible signs of abuse include [6,7,12]:

- Forced feeding injuries caused by eating utensils, bottles, hands, fingers, and other objects; scalding liquids; or caustic substances. These may be responsible for burns, contusions, or lacerations of the lips, tongue, buccal mucosa, gingival alveolar mucosa, frenum, or palate (soft and hard). Objects forced into the face/mouth may also cause facial bone and jaw fractures and avulsed, displaced, or fractured teeth.

- Mouth gagging injuries resulting in bruises, lichenification, or scarring at the corners of the mouth

- Strangulation injuries resulting in bruising, a hoarse or raspy voice, and difficulty breathing

- Discolored teeth from previous trauma

- Serious trauma (e.g., retropharyngeal abscesses, posterior pharyngeal injuries) resulting from caregivers with factitious disorder (i.e., Münchausen syndrome) by proxy

- Injury to the petechiae of the palate (particularly at the junction of soft and hard palate) resulting from forced oral sex

- Sexually transmitted oral/perioral infections (e.g., gonorrhea, human papillomavirus warts), although these can be transmitted by other means as well

- Bite marks or bruises on the head or face, strangulation marks, or black eyes

- Missing hair from hair pulling

- Welts in the shape of objects (e.g., belt buckle, clothes iron)

- Other suspicious trauma/bruises indicative of abuse (e.g., rope marks)

During examination, excessive caries, gingivitis, and oral infections/diseases should be noted as possible signs of neglect. (Parents or caretakers with an ignorance of proper oral care, who have no perceived value of oral health, with limited access to health care or insurance, and/or geographic isolation should be differentiated from those with a willful disregard for the child's health [6].) Perioral and intraoral injuries and infections in various stages of healing, especially those that seem inappropriate for the child's developmental age, should be documented. Additionally, abuse and neglect are more prevalent (up to four times more common) in individuals with developmental or physical disability [12].

Although accidental injuries are common in pediatric patients, the history of trauma, including mechanism and timing, must be weighed against the injury features. Characteristics of the injury that do not seem to match the reported history should spur suspicion of abuse. The acronym RADAR is commonly used to assist in the routine abuse screening of patients [29]:

- Routinely screen for signs and symptoms of abuse/neglect

- Ask direct, non-judgmental questions with compassion

- Document your findings

- Assess patient safety before the patient leaves the medical setting

- Review, refer, report

A parent or primary caretaker may be genuinely unaware of the abuse or injuries and may not be able to offer information relevant to the history. It is important not to make judgments of family members (either innocent or guilty), apportion blame, or attempt to personally undertake a criminal investigation. The scope of dental practice does not include these actions, and they may interfere with a law enforcement investigation. The AAP notes that the dental professional's role in a criminal investigation is to interpret medical information for nonmedical professionals in an understandable manner that accurately reflects the medical evidence [8]. Identify the medical problem, document the suspected abuse (e.g., names, photos, body map, preserve evidence), treat the injuries, and offer honest, factual medical information to parents, families, law enforcement, and justice officials.

Reporting Abuse

As noted in the California Dental Practice Act, dental healthcare professionals have a legal and ethical responsibility to report suspected child abuse to the proper authorities, not to punish perpetrators of abuse but to protect the abuse victims. One author writes, "The dentist must view himself as a child advocate. Simply treating dental and facial injuries of abused children while ignoring the social needs of the child and family is unacceptable" [9].

Nonetheless, the decision of whether or not to report suspected abuse is ethically challenging. Although healthcare professionals are obligated to report suspected abuse, suspicion of abuse is somewhat of a judgment call and certain biases may influence the decision to report. It has been noted that well-intentioned professionals in all fields are swayed by both negative and positive social biases (e.g., sex, race, socioeconomic status, physical appearance, job status), and it is advisable to challenge personal biases and weigh only the facts of the case. A 2008 prospective, observational AAP study found that, "clinicians did not report 27% of injuries considered likely or very likely caused by child abuse and 76% of injuries considered possibly caused by child abuse" because of various biases and experiences [10]. However, patients who had an injury that was not a laceration, who had more than one family risk factor, who had a serious injury, who had a child risk factor other than an inconsistent injury, who had a parental history of substance abuse, or who were unfamiliar to the clinician were more likely to be reported.

Professionally mandated reporters are protected from civil or criminal prosecution in consequence of a good-faith report of abuse, and no clinician in the aforementioned AAP study was sued for malpractice as a result of reporting abuse [7,10]. However, it is possible for dental professionals to be sued, and a state petition for up to $50,000 in recompensatory legal fees is available for dentists having to defend themselves in court [7]. On the other hand, civil or criminal penalties for willfully not reporting abuse or impeding a report when abuse has been found to have occurred include 6 months in jail and/or a fine of $1,000 or, in cases of serious injury/death following a failure to report, 12 months in jail, and/or a fine of $5,000.

ELDER AND DEPENDENT ADULT ABUSE AND NEGLECT

Abusive injuries to the mouth and oral cavity of elder or dependent (e.g., developmentally or physically disabled) adults are similar in type and causation to those sustained by pediatric patients, including trauma from forced feeding, object insertion, mouth gagging, and being slapped, hit, or strangled, but also include damage to and from prostheses. The number of new elder and dependent adult abuse cases is usually about 18,000 per month in California alone, with family members constituting two-thirds of perpetrators [11,26]. However, researchers estimate that for each incident of reported abuse there are at least five (and perhaps up to 14) unreported incidents [11]. Studies have shown that dental professionals are reluctant to report elder or dependent abuse/neglect and that they have a low index of suspicion of this category of abuse [13].

The national frequency of elder abuse is estimated at up to 10%, with a steady increase in reporting over the last few decades [14]. Contrary to popular belief, the overwhelming majority of abuse and neglect occurs in domestic, rather than institutional (e.g., residential care) settings, largely due to the shift in care in the last 50 years from state institutions to the home (particularly for younger disabled individuals) [12,14]. Women are the victims of elder abuse two-thirds of the time.

Elder and dependent adults are also at risk for poor oral health due to caretaker neglect. In fact, neglect is one of the most common causes of elder injury reporting (roughly 500,000 cases per year in the United States) [14]. These populations are also at a high risk for self-neglect, accounting for more than 500,000 additional reported cases in the United States per year. A 2010 study revealed that 40% of individuals 65 years of age or older suffer from some form of neglect [15].

Elder and Dependent Adult Abuse Laws

Laws pertaining to mandatory elder and dependent adult abuse reporting are found in the California Welfare and Institutions Code Sections 15600 to 15632 [16].

Section 15600. (a) The Legislature recognizes that elders and dependent adults may be subjected to abuse, neglect, or abandonment and that this state has a responsibility to protect these persons.

(i) Therefore, it is the intent of the Legislature in enacting this chapter to provide that adult protective services agencies, local long-term care ombudsman programs, and local law enforcement agencies shall receive referrals or complaints from public or private agencies, from any mandated reporter submitting reports pursuant to Section 15630, or from any other source having reasonable cause to know that the welfare of an elder or dependent adult is endangered, and shall take any actions considered necessary to protect the elder or dependent adult and correct the situation and ensure the individual's safety.

Section 15630. (a) Any person who has assumed full or intermittent responsibility for the care or custody of an elder or dependent adult, whether or not he or she receives compensation, including administrators, supervisors, and any licensed staff of a public or private facility that provides care or services for elder or dependent adults, or any elder or dependent adult care custodian, health practitioner, clergy member, or employee of a county adult protective services agency or a local law enforcement agency, is a mandated reporter.

(b) (1) Any mandated reporter who, in his or her professional capacity, or within the scope of his or her employment, has observed or has knowledge of an incident that reasonably appears to be physical abuse, abandonment, abduction, isolation, financial abuse, or neglect, or is told by an elder or dependent adult that he or she has experienced behavior, including an act or omission, constituting physical abuse, abandonment, abduction, isolation, financial abuse, or neglect, or reasonably suspects that abuse, shall report the known or suspected instance of abuse by telephone or through a confidential Internet reporting tool, as authorized by Section 15658, immediately or as soon as practicably possible. If reported by telephone, a written report shall be sent, or an Internet report shall be made through the confidential Internet reporting tool established in Section 15658, within two working days.

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Intimate partner violence is defined as violence directed at a "spouse, former spouse, cohabitant, former cohabitant, or person with whom the suspect has had a child or is having or has had a dating or engagement relationship" [7]. In the United States in 2011, severe physical violence by an intimate partner (including acts such as being hit with something hard, being kicked or beaten, or being burned on purpose) had been experienced by an estimated 22.3% of women and 14.0% of men during their lifetimes [17].

Dental professionals should be vigilant in recognizing signs of abuse among adolescent and adult patients. One-half to two-thirds of abusive injuries occur to the head (particularly areas covered with hair) and neck, and facial injuries occur in 94% of intimate partner violence cases and are similar to those already discussed [7,18]. Again, dental visits may be a patient's only contact with healthcare professionals, making identification of abuse an important part of dental visits [7]. A history of intimidation, fear, isolation, and dependency is often present in victims of abuse, so it is especially important to determine the origin of orofacial or craniofacial injuries through the use of nonjudgmental questions. The Stanford School of Medicine recommends the following lines of indirect questioning for most age groups [31]:

- How is everything going at home?

- Is there anything going on at work/school or at home that's difficult for you to talk about or is stressful for you?

- Are you having any problems with your parents/caretakers/partner/husband?

Alternately, lines of direct questioning may be used [31]:

- Did someone kick, hit, hurt, or threaten to hurt you? Was it your parent/caretaker or partner/husband?

- Are you in a relationship with (or do you live with) someone who hits, kicks, or threatens to hurt you?

- Have you ever been slapped, pushed, or shoved by your parent/partner?

- Have there been times when you felt afraid at home being around another person?

- Have you been hit or scared since the last time I saw you?

- Is it safe for you to go home today?

It is up to the practitioner's judgment which line of questioning to employ. Remember that the objectives are to advocate for and protect the patient. The questions can be framed in a way that does not cause a patient to feel singled out [31]:

- I don't know if this is (or has ever been) a problem for you, but many of the patients I see are dealing with abuse/abusive relationships. Some are too afraid or uncomfortable to bring it up themselves, so I have started asking everyone about it.

- From past experience with other patients, I'm concerned that some of your medical problems or injuries may be the result of someone hurting you. Is that happening?

When working cross-culturally, it is helpful to learn the colloquialisms used to describe abuse. For example, in some Latino cultures "disrespected me" refers to intimate partner violence or sexual assault [30]. If abuse is suspected and there is a cultural disconnect, consider the assistance of a knowledgeable co-worker, who may be able to act as a cultural broker.

7. CONCLUSION

Although its primary objective is to safeguard the public, the California Dental Practice Act is an excellent resource for dental professionals to ensure compliance with state law. Dental professionals with a good knowledge of the Dental Practice Act and its effects on dental care will practice legally and safely.

8. RESOURCES

California Dental Practice Act

https://www.dbc.ca.gov/about_us/lawsregs/laws.shtml

California Dental Association

https://www.cda.org

Dental Hygiene Board of California

https://dhbc.ca.gov

Works Cited

1. Dental Board of California. Dental Practice Act. Available at https://www.dbc.ca.gov/about_us/lawsregs/laws.shtml. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

2. American Dental Association. General Dentistry. Available at https://www.ada.org/resources/careers/practicing-dentistry. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

3. California Legislative Information. CA Penal Code Section 11164-11174.3. Available at https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=PEN&division=&title=1.&part=4.&chapter=2.&article=2.5. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

4. American Academy of Pediatrics. Oral and dental aspects of child abuse and neglect. Pediatrics. 1999;104(2 Pt 1):348-350.

5. Becker DB, Needleman HL, Kotelchuck M. Child abuse and dentistry: orofacial trauma and its recognition by dentists. J Am Dent Assoc. 1978;97(1):24-28.

6. Kellogg N, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Oral and dental aspects of child abuse and neglect. Pediatrics. 2005;116(6):1565-1568.

7. Spencer DE. Child abuse: dentists' recognition and involvement. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2004;32(4):299-303.

8. Christian CW, Block R, Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, American Academy of Pediatrics. Abusive head trauma in infants and children. Pediatrics. 2009;123(5):1409-1411.

9. Bernat JE. Child abuse and neglect: dentistry's role. N Y State Dent J. 1989;55(3):34-37.

10. Flaherty EG, Sege RD, Griffith J, et al. From suspicion of physical child abuse to reporting: primary care clinician decision-making. Pediatrics. 2008;122(3):611-619.

11. California State Legislature. Assembly Bill 2435. Available at http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/09-10/bill/asm/ab_2401-2450/ab_2435_cfa_20100405_092058_asm_comm.html. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

12. Glassman P, Miller C, Ingraham R, Woolford E. The extraordinary vulnerability of people with disabilities: guidelines for oral health professionals. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2004;32(5):379-386.

13. Johnson TE, Boccia AD, Strayer MS. Elder abuse and neglect: detection, reporting, and intervention. Spec Care Dentist. 2001;21(4):141-146.

14. National Center on Elder Abuse. Research: Statistics/Data. Available at https://ncea.acl.gov/What-We-Do/Research/Statistics-and-Data.aspx. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

15. Mattoo KA, Shalabh K, Khan A. Geriatric forensics: a dentist's perspective and contribution to identify existence of elder abuse among his patients. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2010;2(2):81-85.

16. California Legislative Information. California Welfare and Institutions Code. Available at https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=15600&lawCode=WIC. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence and Characteristics of Sexual Violence, Stalking, and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization: National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6308a1.htm?s_cid=ss6308a1_e. Last accessed Janaury 12, 2022.

18. Barkley Burnett L, Adler J. Domestic Violence: Clinical Presentation. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/805546-clinical#b4. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

19. California Legislative Code. Business and Professions Code Section 1600-1621. Available at https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=BPC&division=2.&title=&part=&chapter=4.&article=1. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

20. Dental Hygiene Board of California. Home Page. Available at https://dhbc.ca.gov/index.shtml. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

21. Dental Board of California. Fingerprint Requirement for License Renewal. Available at https://www.dbc.ca.gov/licensees/fingerprint_faq.shtml. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

22. Dental Board of California. Enforcement Program. Available at https://www.dbc.ca.gov/consumers/enforcement.shtml. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

23. Shouse Law Group. How Criminal Convictions Affect California Dental Board Licenses. Available at https://www.shouselaw.com/dentists.html. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

24. California Legislative Code. Business and Professions Code Section 1625–1636.6. http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=BPC&division=2.&title=&part=&chapter=4.&article=2. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

25. California Legislative Code. Business and Professions Code Section 1648.10–1648.20. Available at http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=BPC&division=2.&title=&part=&chapter=4.&article=2.9. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

26. California Department of Social Services. Adult Protective Services and County Block Grant Monthly Statistical Report. Available at https://www.cdss.ca.gov/inforesources/Research-and-Data/Disability-Adult-Programs-Data-Tables/SOC-242 . Last accessed January 12, 2022.

27. California Dental Association. Mandatory CURES Consultation in Effect Oct 2. Available at https://www.cda.org/Home/Practice/Practice-Support/Regulatory-Compliance/CURES-and-Opioid-Pain-Management. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

28. Westlaw. California Code of Regulations. Available at https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Browse/Home/California/CaliforniaCodeofRegulations?transitionType=Default&contextData=%28sc.Default%29. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

29. County of Orange Social Services Agency. RADAR: A Domestic Violence Intervention. Available at https://www.factoc.org/ radar-a-domestic-violence-intervention. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

30. U.S. Department of Justice Office for Victims of Crime. Existe Ayuda (Help Exists) Toolkit. Available at https://ovc.ojp.gov/sites/ g/files/xyckuh226/files/pubs/existeayuda/pfv.html. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

31. Stanford Medicine. Domestic Abuse: How to Ask. Available at https://domesticabuse.stanford.edu/screening/how.html. Last accessed January 12, 2022.

58583 • Infection Control for Dental Professionals: The California Requirement

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2022 NetCE, All rights reserved.

Effective infection control techniques are critical to reducing the incidence of infections in dental facilities. Antiseptic techniques and antibiotics will kill micro-organisms, while proper hand hygiene will block their transmission. Gloves, gowns, and masks remove dental professionals from the transmission cycle by protecting them from contact with micro-organisms. Contact Precautions and isolation techniques help patients avoid being vectors of transmission. Lastly, ensuring that dental professionals are immune or vaccinated can help decrease the availability of potential hosts.

Table of Contents

58583 • Infection Control for Dental Professionals: The California Requirement

Course Overview

Audience

Course Objective

Learning Objectives

Faculty

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planner

Division Planner Disclosure

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Director Disclosure Statement

About the Sponsor

Disclosure Statement

Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OSHA AND CAL/OSHA REGULATIONS

BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS STANDARD

CALIFORNIA AEROSOL TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASE STANDARD

3. MODES OF TRANSMISSION

AEROSOLS, DROPLETS, AND SPLATTER

FOMITE TRANSMISSION

4. BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS

HEPATITIS B VIRUS

HEPATITIS C VIRUS

HIV/AIDS

5. PREVENTION STRATEGIES

STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

RESPIRATORY HYGIENE

ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE

SAFE INJECTION PRACTICES

HAND HYGIENE

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL MEASURES

ENVIRONMENTAL CLEANING

MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

DENTAL UNIT WATERLINES, BIOFILM, AND WATER QUALITY

7. ENGINEERING AND WORK PRACTICE CONTROLS

CLEANING, DISINFECTION, AND STERILIZATION

8. PROTECTING DENTAL HEALTHCARE WORKERS

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES

TUBERCULOSIS PREVENTION

VACCINATION

TRAINING AND EDUCATION

9. CONCLUSION

10. DENTAL BOARD OF CALIFORNIA GENERAL PROVISIONS: SECTION 1005. MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR INFECTION CONTROL

11. CAL/OSHA COVID-19 STANDARD

Works Cited

58583 • Infection Control for Dental Professionals: The California Requirement

Education Category. Infection Control / Internal Medicine

Release Date. 02/01/2022

Expiration Date. 01/31/2025

Course Overview

Effective infection control techniques are critical to reducing the incidence of infections in dental facilities. Antiseptic techniques and antibiotics will kill micro-organisms, while proper hand hygiene will block their transmission. Gloves, gowns, and masks remove dental professionals from the transmission cycle by protecting them from contact with micro-organisms. Contact Precautions and isolation techniques help patients avoid being vectors of transmission. Lastly, ensuring that dental professionals are immune or vaccinated can help decrease the availability of potential hosts.

Audience

This course is designed for all dentists, dental hygienists, and dental assistants in all practice settings, particularly those practicing in California.

Course Objective

The purpose of this course is to familiarize dental professionals with infection control techniques in order to minimize the risks of microbial transmission in the dental healthcare setting.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Outline OSHA and Cal/OSHA regulations that impact the provision of dental care.

2. Analyze potential modes of transmission and pathogens that can result in infection in dental facilities.

3. Discuss potential prevention strategies for infection control, including the use of precautions, hand hygiene, and personal protective equipment.

4. Describe effective environmental control measures that should be applied in dental care.

5. Identify steps that should be taken to protect dental professionals, including vaccination, education, and exposure responses.

Faculty

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD, graduated from the University of California School of Dentistry, San Francisco, California, in 1966. In 1975, he completed residency training in Periodontics and received a Master's degree from George Washington University.
Dr. Frey retired from the United States Army Dental Corps in 1989 after 22 years of service. Throughout the course of his professional career, he has continuously practiced dentistry, the first 7 years as a general dentist and the past more than 40 as a periodontist. His military experience included the command of a networked Dental Activity consisting of five dental clinics. In his last assignment, he was in charge of a 38-chair facility. Colonel Frey was selected by the Army to serve on two separate occasions as the Chair of the Periodontal Department in Army General Dentistry Residency Training Programs.
Dr. Frey is the founder and president of Perio Plus, a practice management firm specializing in creating individually-designed hygiene and periodontal care programs for general dentists. He is also the creator of the Inspector Gum patient education series.

Faculty Disclosure

Contributing faculty, William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Division Planner

Mark J. Szarejko, DDS, FAGD

Division Planner Disclosure

The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Sarah Campbell

Director Disclosure Statement

The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.

Implicit Bias in Health Care

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern, as there is some evidence that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions. Implicit biases may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages.

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be categorized as change-based or control-based. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

1. INTRODUCTION

In 2018, there were more than 750,000 jobs in dental occupations in the United States [1]. In California alone there are approximately 91,000 dental healthcare professionals (DHCPs), including dentists, dental hygienists, and dental assistants. Most of these dental workers come in daily contact with a variety of infectious diseases in their workplace and are at risk for both transmitting and contracting these diseases. In California, there are three regulatory agencies involved in infection control in the dental healthcare setting: the Dental Board of California (DBC), which sets the minimum standards, the California Division of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal/OSHA), which publishes the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard, and the California Department of Public Health, which established the Waste Management Act.

To address the issue of infection control and reduce the potential for harm, the DBC established a requirement that dental healthcare licensees in California complete a course on infection control and prevention. DBC regulations also require that licensees comply with and enforce precautions and workplace practices that minimize the transmission of pathogens in dental settings. "Standard Precautions" is the DBC term for infection control measures that encompasses both "Universal Precautions"—a term the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses—and the Cal/OSHA mandate for bloodborne pathogen transmission. The DBC mandates that Standard Precautions must be practiced in the care of all patients. The same infection control precautions apply to all patients, and all body fluids, except sweat, are considered potentially infectious. Universal Precautions are measures taken when exposed to blood, while Standard Precautions apply to all potentially infectious materials. While most elements of Standard Precautions evolved from Universal Precautions, developed for protection of healthcare personnel, additional elements of Standard Precautions focus on protection of patients. Contact Precautions are used to prevent transmission of an infectious agent associated with environmental contamination (e.g., treating all environmental surfaces as potentially contaminated) that is not interrupted by Standard Precautions alone.

A written protocol should be developed for proper instrument processing, operatory cleanliness, and management of injuries, and a copy of infection control regulations should be conspicuously posted in each dental office [2]. The DBC Standard Precaution guidelines are reviewed annually. Current guidelines may be downloaded at https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I3F75D9A0B95D11E0A3CAA6663E6464AA and are found at the conclusion of this course. Significant changes in the 2011 revision include application of the guidelines to all dental healthcare professionals (not just "registered" professionals) and specific steps for disinfection [2]. The goal of these guidelines is to reduce the number of healthcare-associated infections in California dental practice settings.

2. OSHA AND CAL/OSHA REGULATIONS

Legal issues first began to impact infection control practices at the beginning of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic in the early 1980s. The need to protect healthcare workers from bloodborne exposures resulted in the publication of the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard by OSHA in 1991 [3]. The OSHA Standard requires employers whose employees have exposure to blood or other potentially infectious material to implement safe work practices, education, and barriers to exposure. The Standard was later amended to cover the safe use of sharps.

BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS STANDARD

The OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard requires that every healthcare worker who may have contact on the job with blood or other bodily fluids (referred to as other potentially infectious material or OPIM) must receive specific annual education, which includes instruction in the basics of infection control and prevention. Training must also cover bloodborne pathogens, modes of transmission, the proper use of needles, and Contact Precautions.

CALIFORNIA AEROSOL TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASE STANDARD

In 2009, Cal/OSHA adopted the nation's first aerosol transmissible disease (ATD) standard, which remains in effect today. The standard is designed to protect healthcare workers from diseases spread by an airborne or droplet route. The ATD standard requires healthcare employers to develop exposure control procedures and train employees to follow those procedures [4,5]. Basic exposure precautions, such as source screening, infection control, hand hygiene, and cleaning and decontamination procedures, are a fundamental part of the standard. Employees must be included in the periodic review and assessment of these procedures.

California dental offices whose patients have suspected or confirmed illnesses that require Airborne or Droplet Precautions, such as tuberculosis (TB) or other respiratory illnesses, must comply with the ATD standards [4]. Key points include:

- Dental employees must be trained to screen patients for ATDs.

- The screening process must be described in a written office procedure.

- Screening must be consistently implemented.

- Elective dental treatment should be deferred until the patient is non-infectious for TB or other diseases requiring Airborne or Droplet Precautions.

A simple screening procedure can be done by the first person who comes in contact with a patient. For example, the patient may be asked "How are you feeling today?" or "Do you have any coughs, fever, or flu-like symptoms?" If the patient is not feeling well or gives a positive answer to any part of the second question, the dental treatment should be rescheduled.

Outpatient dental clinics or offices are not required to comply with this standard if they meet all of the following conditions [4,6,7]:

- Dental procedures are not performed on patients identified as ATD cases or suspected ATD cases (e.g., persons with TB or other respiratory illnesses).

- The clinic's injury and illness prevention program includes a written procedure for screening patients for ATDs that is consistent with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines for infection control in dental settings. This procedure must be followed before performing any dental work on a patient.

- Employees have been trained in the screening procedure in accordance with state law.

- Aerosol-generating dental procedures are not performed on a patient identified through the screening procedure as presenting a possible ATD exposure risk unless a licensed physician determines that the patient does not currently have an ATD.

3. MODES OF TRANSMISSION

Almost all pathogens are transmitted by being carried from one place to another. The mode or means of transmission is the weakest link in the chain of infection, and it is the only link that can be eliminated entirely. Most infection control efforts are aimed at preventing transmission of pathogens from a reservoir to a susceptible host. Both Standard and Contact Precautions are designed to interrupt the mode of transmission.

The most common modes of transmission in the healthcare setting are the hands of healthcare workers and items that move from patient to patient, both of which are examples of indirect transmission (Table 1). Items moving between patients should be cleaned and sterilized after each use to avoid indirect transmission of pathogens. Because it addresses the weakest link in the chain of transmission, hand hygiene is still the single most important procedure for preventing the spread of infection.

Table 1: Common Modes of Infection Transmission

Category

Definition

Direct

Person-to-person transmission of pathogens

Indirect

An intermediate person or item (e.g., an instrument) acts as a transport between the portal of exit in one person and the portal of entry to the next person (e.g., unwashed hands)

Fomites

Contact with soiled objects, such as used gloves, pens, used tissues, and soiled laundry

Source: Compiled by Author

AEROSOLS, DROPLETS, AND SPLATTER

Aerosols, droplets (produced by the respiratory tract), and splatter contaminated with blood and bacteria are produced during many dental procedures [8]. Devices such as dental handpieces, ultrasonic and sonic scalers, air polishers, air-water syringes, and air abrasion units produce visible aerosol clouds and possible airborne contamination. Splatter generated by dental procedures such as drilling is a primary risk for transmission of bloodborne pathogens. In general, because of their smaller size, aerosols pose the greatest risk for airborne infection.

Several studies have shown that aerosol or droplet nuclei may extend up to 6 feet away from the source and can remain airborne for up to 30 minutes after a procedure. TB is of special concern because it is a large particle that can remain airborne or can dry on a surface and become airborne again as part of a dust particle.

The American Dental Association recommends that in addition to using standard barriers, such as masks, gloves, and eye protection, the proper sterilization of instruments and treatment of dental unit waterlines is necessary to reduce or eliminate this source of potentially contaminated dental aerosols. Preprocedural rinsing with an antimicrobial mouthwash such as chlorhexidine is also recommended, although it is only effective for oral bacteria found in saliva and those adhering to mucous membranes. It does not penetrate subgingivally and likely has no effect on bacteria in the nasopharynx [9].

Diseases known to spread by aerosols or droplet include:

- TB

- Pneumonic Yersinia pestis infection (plague)

- Influenza

- Legionellosis (Legionnaires disease)

- Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Procedures or equipment aimed at eliminating the means of transmission include [9]:

- Universal preprocedural rinses

- Dental dams for certain procedures

- High-volume evacuator (HVE) at the treatment site (An HVE can only remove airborne contamination if it removes a large volume of air. A saliva ejector does not remove enough air to be classified as an HVE.)

- High-efficiency particulate arresting and ultraviolet filters in the ventilation system

- Gloves to minimize contamination of hands, discarded after each patient

- Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization of equipment used by more than one patient

- Environmental cleaning and disinfection, especially of high-touch surfaces

FOMITE TRANSMISSION

Devices can transmit pathogens if they are contaminated with blood or bodily fluids or are shared without cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilizing between patients; these are classified as fomites. Surgical instruments that are inadequately cleaned between patients or that have manufacturing defects that interfere with the effectiveness of reprocessing may transmit bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. Clothing, uniforms, laboratory coats, or gowns used as personal protective equipment (PPE) may become contaminated with potential pathogens after care of a patient colonized or infected with an infectious agent [10].

Contaminated clothing and laboratory coats can potentially transmit infectious agents to successive patients. A 2007 study in a Maryland teaching hospital revealed that 27% of the white coats worn by 109 physicians and other healthcare professionals were colonized with Staphylococcus aureus and 6% were colonized with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In a follow-up questionnaire, 65% of the healthcare workers reported they had last washed their white coat more than a week ago and nearly 16% had last washed their coat more than 30 days ago [11]. A study presented at the American Society of Microbiology Conference in 2012 identified clothing and household linens (e.g., cotton towels) as a significant transmission source of infectious pathogens [12]. However, evidence linking clothing to hospital infection rates is lacking, and additional research is necessary to determine the actual extent of this risk [13].

Dental equipment and dental unit waterlines are both potential sources of transmission and potential reservoirs. Routine cleaning and sterilization and adherence to the American Dental Association's recommended procedures for treating dental unit waterlines have been shown to be effective in eliminating transmission of infectious organisms via these devices. If a surgical procedure involves soft tissue or bone, California regulations require the use of sterile coolants or irrigants, delivered using a sterile delivery system. In addition, a new infection control standard that took effect on January 1, 2019, requires that water or other methods for irrigation must be sterile or contain recognized disinfecting or antibacterial properties when performing procedures on exposed dental pulp. This requirement is in response to a 2016 outbreak of mycobacterial infection from a Southern California dental clinic that led to the hospitalization of more than 60 children. The cause was determined to be bacteria introduced through water during pulpotomies [14].

4. BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS

Healthcare employees can be exposed to blood through needlestick and other sharps injuries, damaged mucous membranes, and broken skin exposures. The pathogens of primary concern to dental professions are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus.

HEPATITIS B VIRUS

Healthcare personnel who have received the hepatitis B vaccine and developed immunity to the virus are at virtually no risk for infection. For a susceptible person, the risk from a single needlestick or cut exposure to hepatitis B-infected blood ranges from 6% to 30%, depending on the hepatitis B antigen status of the source individual [8,15]. While there is a risk for hepatitis B infection from exposures of mucous membranes or nonintact skin, there is no known risk for infection from exposure to intact skin [16].

HEPATITIS C VIRUS

Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily through percutaneous exposure to infected blood. The average risk for infection after a needlestick or cut exposure to hepatitis C virus-infected blood is approximately 1.8% [17]. The risk following a blood exposure to the eye, nose, or mouth is unknown but is believed to be very small; however, hepatitis C virus infection from blood splashes to the eye has been reported [17]. There also has been a report of hepatitis C virus transmission that may have resulted from exposure to nonintact skin, but there is no known risk from exposure to intact skin [8]. Documented transmission of hepatitis C or hepatitis B virus has resulted from using the same syringe or vial to administer medication to more than one patient, even if the needle was changed.

The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among dentists and surgeons is similar to that among the general population, approximately 1% to 2% [15]. No studies of transmission from hepatitis C virus-infected dental healthcare personnel to patients have been reported, and the risk for such transmission appears limited [6].

HIV/AIDS

The average risk of HIV infection after a needlestick or cut exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.3%; 99.7% of needlestick or cut exposures do not lead to infection [8,17]. The risk after exposure of the eye, nose, or mouth to HIV-infected blood is estimated to be 0.1%. There have been no documented cases of HIV transmission due to an exposure involving a small amount of blood on intact skin (i.e., a few drops of blood on skin for a short period of time) [8,17].

In the United States, the risk of HIV transmission in dental settings is extremely low. According to surveillance data from 1981 to 2010, a total of 57 cases of HIV seroconversion had been documented among healthcare personnel after occupational exposure to a known HIV-infected source, but none were among dental care personnel [18]. Transmission of HIV to 6 patients of a single dentist with AIDS has been reported, but the mode of transmission could not be determined [19].

Certain factors affect the risk of HIV transmission after an occupational exposure. Laboratory studies have determined if needles that pass through latex gloves are solid rather than hollow-bore or are of small gauge (e.g., anesthetic needles), less blood is transferred. In a retrospective, case-control study of healthcare personnel, an increased risk for HIV infection was associated with exposure to a relatively large volume of blood, as with a deep injury with a device that was visibly contaminated with the patient's blood or a procedure that involved a needle placed in a vein or artery [20]. The risk was also increased if the exposure was to blood from patients with terminal illnesses, possibly reflecting the higher titer of HIV in late-stage AIDS patients.

5. PREVENTION STRATEGIES

In 1986, California became the first state to pass a comprehensive bloodborne pathogen standard [9]. The California standard provided a model for federal legislation, and in 1991, OSHA published its Bloodborne Pathogens Standard. Since then, regulatory and legislative activity has focused on implementing a hierarchy of prevention and control measures to improve infection control in healthcare settings. Respiratory hygiene, safe injection practices, aseptic technique, hand hygiene, and the use of PPE are now accepted as essential components of an effective infection prevention strategy. The Cal/OSHA ATD standard passed into law in 2009 was expected to be a blueprint for federal standards addressing aerosol transmissible diseases [5,9]. Although permanent federal standards have not come to fruition, in June 2021, OSHA issued an emergency temporary standard addressing occupational exposure to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), commonly referred to as COVID-19, including patient screening and management, use of Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions, PPE, and controls for aerosol-generating procedures [21].

STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

The gradual acceptance of various infection prevention standards has changed the way we work in the provision of dental care. The use of Standard Precautions reduces the risk of infection to staff and patients and ensures that the right precautions are used with both known and unknown carriers of diseases due to bloodborne pathogens. Standard Precautions apply to contact with:

- Blood

- All bodily fluids, secretions, and excretions (except sweat), regardless of whether they contain blood

- Intact or nonintact skin

- Mucous membranes

A central tenet of Standard Precautions is to consider all patients to be potentially infected with a bloodborne pathogen. Saliva has always been considered a potentially infectious material in dental infection control; thus, no operational difference exists in clinical dental practice between Universal Precautions and Standard Precautions. For organisms other than bloodborne pathogens, early identification and prompt isolation are critical.

When adhering to Standard Precautions, always:

- Use good hand hygiene.

- Use gloves for contact with blood, bodily fluids, nonintact skin (including rashes), mucous membranes, used equipment, linens, and trash.

- Use a gown any time your clothing is soiled and if a patient has uncontained bodily fluids (e.g., blood, saliva).

- Use a mask and eye protection if you may be splashed or be exposed to droplets; glasses do not adequately protect you.

- Change gloves if they become heavily soiled when working on a patient or if you must go from a potentially more infective area to a lesser one.

In addition, never:

- Wear artificial fingernails.

- Touch a second patient with the same pair of gloves used on the first patient.

- Reuse gowns, even for repeated contacts with the same patient.

- Contaminate the environment with dirty gloves.

- Wear gloves outside the treatment area unless you can say why you are wearing them.

RESPIRATORY HYGIENE

If dental clinics and offices comply with state regulations for screening of patients with ATDs, they are not required to comply with the new standards for prevention of transmission of ATDs [4]. However, because no screening process is universally effective, dental professionals should be aware of the potential dangers associated with transmission of pathogens via the airborne and droplet routes.

Respiratory droplets can transmit infection when they travel directly from the respiratory tract of the infected individual to the mucosal surfaces of the recipient, generally over short distances (i.e., 6 feet or less). Airborne transmission occurs with only a few organisms that can survive the drying of respiratory droplets. When the droplets evaporate, they leave behind droplet nuclei, which are so small they remain suspended in the air and can travel over longer distances. Respiratory droplets and droplet nuclei are generated when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks during procedures. Facial masks or shields generally provide direct protection from droplet transmission. Some pathogens transmitted via the airborne route (e.g., TB) require the use of an N95 respirator or better (e.g., N99, N100) due to the small particle size.

ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE

Aseptic technique involves the handling, preparation, and storage of medications in a manner that prevents microbial contamination. It also applies to the handling of all supplies used for injections and infusions. To avoid contamination, medications should be drawn in a clean medication preparation area. Any item that may have come in contact with blood or other potentially infectious material should be kept separate from medications.

SAFE INJECTION PRACTICES

In 2000, the Federal Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act authorized OSHA to revise its Bloodborne Pathogens Standard to require the use of safety-engineered sharp devices in healthcare settings [22]. Guidelines on the design, implementation, and evaluation of a sharps injury prevention program have been developed by the CDC.

Safe injection practices are designed to prevent disease transmission within the healthcare setting. The absence of visible blood or other signs of contamination in a used syringe does not mean the item is free from potentially infectious agents. Bacteria and other microbes can be present without any visible evidence of contamination. All used injection supplies and materials should be considered potentially contaminated and should be discarded.

To ensure safe injection practices, use aseptic technique throughout all aspects of injection preparation and administration. A new, sterile syringe and needle should be used to draw up medications while preventing contact between the injection materials and the nonsterile environment. Practice proper hand hygiene before handling medications, and discard medication vials upon expiration or any time there are concerns regarding the sterility of the medication.

Never leave a needle or other device inserted into a vial or bottle for multiple uses. This provides a direct route for micro-organisms to enter the vial and contaminate the fluid. Medications should never be administered from the same syringe to more than one patient, even if the needle is changed.

Dental professionals should follow proper technique when using and handling needles, cannulae, and syringes. Whenever possible, use sharps with engineered sharps injury protections (e.g., non-needle or needle devices with built-in safety features or mechanisms that effectively reduce the risk of an exposure incident). Do not disable or circumvent the safety feature on devices.

Cases of bloodborne pathogen transmission as a result of improper injection practices have common themes [22]. Often, aseptic technique and Standard Precautions were not carefully followed. Infection control programs may be lacking or responsibilities unclear. In several instances, failure to recognize an infection control breach has led to prolonged transmission and a growing number of infected patients. In all cases, investigations were time-consuming and costly and required the notification, testing, and counseling of hundreds and sometimes thousands of patients.

HAND HYGIENE

Despite the simplicity and effectiveness of hand hygiene in preventing the spread of infectious disease, adherence to hand hygiene practice remains unacceptably low [23]. Adherence varies among professional categories of healthcare workers but is usually estimated as less than 50%, a rate that has not changed in more than a decade [23,24,25]. Healthcare providers might need to clean their hands as many as 100 times in a 12-hour shift, depending on the number of patients and intensity of care [25]. For dental healthcare workers, strict adherence to hand hygiene protects both the patient and the worker. Hand hygiene should be done when you first come to work, before you touch your first patient or clean equipment, and before and after every patient contact—including after touching intact skin. In addition, perform hand hygiene:

- After contact with any bodily fluids, including your own

- Before any non-invasive or invasive procedure

- Each time you remove your gloves

- When your hands feel or look dirty

- After contact with contaminated things or environments, such as charts

- After handling used equipment or linen

- After using the bathroom

- Before contact with any portal of entry, your patient's or your own

- Before and after eating

A number of conditions restrict dental healthcare professionals from participating in direct patient care. These include weeping dermatitis, exudative lesions, or any hand conditions that increase the risk of disease transmission.

Good handwashing is difficult to practice, is rarely known or taught, and is one of the single most effective ways to prevent transmission of many diseases, including influenza. Everyone knows to wash their hands before eating and after using the restroom. However, few do little more than remove obvious dirt. Good handwashing involves removing the skin oils where organisms can remain even when the hands look clean. A quick pass under the water faucet and fast dry with a towel may remove visible dirt, but the oils and organisms remain.

To effectively remove the oils and organisms, the process should take at least 20 seconds, or the amount of time it takes to sing "Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star." The hands should be soaped and rubbed vigorously for 15 seconds to create a good lather and to assure that all parts of each hand are soaped and rubbed well. Then, the hands should be rinsed thoroughly and dried, preferably with a paper towel. The towel should be used to turn off the water faucet and then properly thrown away. Such handwashing removes the oils that harbor the organisms. However, 20 seconds is a long time in the busy life of a healthcare provider, and this 20 seconds has been identified as a major barrier to handwashing, particularly among those who consider themselves "too busy" to wash their hands [23]. If there is no visible dirt or contamination, a waterless hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol can be used between patients. However, nothing is as good as washing well with soap and water. Some mistakenly think that hot water must be used to kill the organisms. Water hot enough to kill organisms would be too hot to touch. Warm water softens oils but mainly adds to comfort and encourages better washing technique (i.e., longer duration). Careful attention to handwashing and cleansing may result in chapped skin, so the dental professional must find effective lotions to care for his/her hands.

Certain soaps contain stronger antiseptic compounds, such as chlorhexidine, and these soaps may be considered in cases in which exposure to potentially infectious material is likely. Antiseptic soaps or surgical preparation liquids have been found more effective than plain soap in removing bacteria from healthcare workers hands both pre- and postprocedure [26,27]. In addition, antiseptics may be added to alcohol-based handrubs in order to achieve persistent germicidal activity [6]. Possible side effects associated with frequent use of antiseptic hand scrubs include skin irritation, dermatitis, allergic reactions, and potential development of microbial resistances. Chlorhexidine products are considered safe for regular use in dental practice; however, if associated side effects are bothersome, they may result in decreased hand hygiene compliance.

In summary, start and end each work day using an antibacterial soap. Gloves provide a breeding ground for microbial growth, and washing before and after use is encouraged. If hands are not visibly soiled, a waterless hand sanitizer (at least 60% alcohol) may be used. For surgical procedures, wash hands with antimicrobial soap prior to gowning and gloving.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

PPE is defined as special coverings designed to protect healthcare personnel from exposure to or contact with infectious agents [28]. Cal/OSHA regulations require use of PPE in dental care settings to protect personnel from exposure to bloodborne pathogens. Under OSHA's General Duty Clause, PPE is also required for any potential infectious disease exposure. Employers must provide their employees with appropriate PPE and ensure its proper disposal. If reusable, it must be properly cleaned or laundered, repaired, and stored after use [29]. PPE must fit the individual user, and it is up to the employer to ensure that PPE is available in sizes appropriate for all their workers. Employees are prohibited from taking PPE home to launder.

In addition to the familiar gloves and gowns, PPE includes a variety of barriers and respirators used alone or in combination to protect skin, mucous membranes, and airways from contact with infectious agents. The selection of PPE is based on the nature of the patient/provider interaction and the likely mode of transmission. Primary PPE used in oral healthcare settings includes gloves, surgical masks, protective eyewear, face shields, and protective clothing.

Procedures that generate splashes or sprays of blood, bodily fluids, secretions, excretions, or chemical agents require either a face shield (disposable or reusable) or mask and goggles. The wearing of masks, eye protection, and face shields in specified circumstances (when blood or other potentially infectious material exposures are likely to occur) is mandated by the OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard. Sterile barriers for invasive procedures and masks or respirators for the prevention of droplet contamination are also required.

The use of PPE is not a substitute for safe work practices. Avoid contaminating yourself by keeping your hands away from your face and not touching or adjusting equipment. PPE is a potential means of transmission if not changed between patients. All PPE should be removed when leaving patient care areas.

Gloves

Dental personnel should wear gloves to prevent contamination of their hands when touching mucous membranes, blood, saliva, or other potentially infectious material. Gloves reduce the likelihood that micro-organisms present on the hands will be transmitted to patients during surgical or other patient-care procedures. Gloves used in the healthcare setting are subject to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluation and clearance. Nonsterile, disposable medical gloves made of latex or nitrile should be available for routine patient care. Dental professionals should always use gloves when [28,30]:

- Anticipating direct contact with blood or bodily fluids, mucous membranes, nonintact skin, and other potentially infectious material

- Engaging in direct contact with patients who are colonized or infected with pathogens transmitted by the contact route, such as vancomycin-resistant enterococci or MRSA

- Handling or touching visibly or potentially contaminated patient care equipment and environmental surfaces

Studies have repeatedly shown that vinyl gloves have higher failure rates than latex or nitrile gloves. For this reason, either latex or nitrile gloves are preferable for clinical procedures that require manual dexterity or those involving more than brief patient contact. Heavier, reusable utility gloves should be used for non-patient-care activities, such as handling or cleaning contaminated equipment or surfaces, handling chemicals, or disinfecting contaminated tools [28,30].

During dental procedures, patient examination gloves commonly contact multiple types of chemicals and materials, such as disinfectants and antiseptics, composite resins, and bonding agents, and these materials can compromise the integrity of latex, nitrile, and other synthetic glove materials. In addition, latex gloves can interfere with the setting of vinyl polysiloxane impression materials. Given the diverse selection of dental materials on the market, dental practitioners should consult glove manufacturers regarding the chemical compatibility of glove materials [6].

Wearing sterile surgeon's gloves during surgical procedures has a strong theoretical rationale. Sterile gloves minimize transmission of micro-organisms from the hands of surgical personnel to patients and prevent contamination of the hands of surgical personnel with the patient's blood and bodily fluids. In addition, sterile surgeon's gloves are more rigorously regulated by the FDA and may provide an increased level of protection for the provider if exposure to blood is likely [6].

Gloves should be removed and replaced if torn or punctured and discarded between patients to prevent transmission of infectious material. They should never be washed and reused, as micro-organisms cannot be removed reliably from glove surfaces. Glove reuse has been associated with transmission of MRSA and gram-negative bacilli [28,30].

When gloves are worn in combination with other PPE, they should be put on last. Gloves that fit snugly around the wrist are preferred for use with a gown because they will cover the gown cuff and provide a more reliable continuous barrier for the arms, wrists, and hands. Removing gloves properly also prevents hand contamination. Hand hygiene following glove removal ensures that the hands will not carry potentially infectious material that might have penetrated through unrecognized tears or contaminated the hands during glove removal [28,30]. When processing contaminated sharp instruments, needles, and devices, heavy utility gloves should be used to prevent puncture injuries.

Cover Garb

Gowns are intended to protect the arms and exposed body areas and prevent contamination of clothing with blood, bodily fluids, and other potentially infectious material. The type of gown selected is based on the nature of the patient/provider interaction, including the anticipated degree of contact with infectious material and potential for blood and bodily fluid penetration of the barrier. Laboratory coats or jackets worn over personal clothing for comfort or purposes of identity are not considered PPE [28,30].

California regulations require that dental personnel wear reusable or disposable protective attire when their clothing or skin is likely to be soiled with blood or other potentially infectious material. Gowns must be changed daily or between patients if they become moist or visibly soiled. Protective attire must be removed when leaving laboratories or areas of patient care activities. Reusable gowns should be laundered in accordance with Cal/OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standards [2].

Masks, Protective Eyewear, and Face Shields

In California, dental professionals are required to wear surgical masks that cover both the nose and mouth, in combination with either chin-length plastic face shields or protective eyewear when there is potential for splashing or spattering of blood or other potentially infectious material. After each patient and during patient treatment (if applicable), masks must be changed if moist or contaminated. After each patient, face shields and protective eyewear shall be cleaned and disinfected, if contaminated [2].

Masks should fit snuggly and fully cover the nose and mouth to prevent fluid penetration. For this reason, masks that have a flexible nose piece and can be secured to the head with string ties or elastic are preferable. Surgical masks protect against micro-organisms generated by the wearer and also protect dental personnel from large-particle droplet spatter that might contain bloodborne pathogens or other potentially infectious material. If the mask becomes wet or contaminated, it should be changed between patients or even during patient treatment. For employees at increased risk of exposure to ATDs, such as those working in endemic areas (e.g., Southeast Asia) or in areas designated for isolation or quarantine, the employer must provide a respirator at least as effective as an N95 respirator.

Most surgical masks are not National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)-certified as respirators, do not protect the user adequately from exposure to TB, and do not satisfy OSHA requirements for respiratory protection. However, certain surgical masks (i.e., N95 respirators) do meet the requirements and are certified by NIOSH. The level of protection a respirator provides is determined by the efficiency of the filter material for incoming air (e.g., 95% for N95) and how well the face piece fits or seals to the face. N95 respirators are required to be labeled as such on the device.

Respirators are used when treating patients with diseases requiring Airborne Precautions and should be used in the context of a complete respiratory protection program. This program should include training and fit testing to ensure an adequate seal between the edges of the respirator and the wearer's face.

Goggles with side shields provide barrier protection for the eyes and should fit snuggly over and around the eyes or personal prescription lenses. Personal prescription lenses do not provide optimal eye protection and should not be used as a substitute for goggles. If goggles or face shields are reusable, they must be placed in a designated receptacle for subsequent reprocessing. If they are not reusable, they may be discarded in a designated waste receptacle.

Face shields extending from chin to crown provide better face and eye protection from splashes and sprays than goggles. Shields that wrap around the sides may reduce splashes around the edge. Removal of a face shield, goggles, and mask can be performed safely after gloves have been removed and hand hygiene performed. The ties, ear pieces, or headband used to secure the equipment to the head are considered clean and therefore safe to touch with bare hands. The front of the face shield is considered contaminated [30].

6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL MEASURES

As discussed, contaminated surfaces and objects can serve as the means of transmission for potential pathogens. The transfer of a micro-organism from an environmental surface to a patient is largely via hand contact with the surface. Although hand hygiene is important to minimize the impact of this transfer, cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces is fundamental in reducing their potential contribution to the incidence of infections [31].

ENVIRONMENTAL CLEANING

All work areas, including contact surfaces and barriers, must be maintained in a clean and sanitary condition. Employers are required to determine and implement a written schedule for cleaning and disinfection based on the location, type of surface to be cleaned, type of soil present, and tasks or procedures being performed. All equipment and environmental and working surfaces must be properly cleaned and disinfected after contact with blood or other potentially infectious material.

If items or surfaces likely to be contaminated are difficult to clean and disinfect, they must be protected with disposable impervious barriers. Clean and disinfect all clinical contact surfaces that are not protected by impervious barriers using a California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA)-registered, hospital grade low- to intermediate-level disinfectant after each patient. The low-level disinfectants used must be labeled effective against hepatitis B virus and HIV. Use disinfectants in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Clean all housekeeping surfaces (e.g., floors, walls, sinks) with a detergent and water or a Cal/EPA-registered, hospital-grade disinfectant. Chemical-resistant utility gloves should be worn when handling hazardous chemicals [31].

MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

Federal, state, and local guidelines and regulations specify the categories of medical waste subject to regulation and outline the requirements associated with treatment and disposal. Regulated medical waste is defined as [6,31]:

- Liquid or semi-liquid blood or other potentially infectious materials

- Contaminated items that would release blood or other potentially infectious material in a liquid or semi-liquid state if compressed

- Items that are caked with dried blood or other potentially infectious material capable of releasing these materials during handling

- Contaminated sharps (e.g., needles, burs, scalpel blades, endodontic files)

- Pathologic and microbiologic wastes containing blood or other potentially infectious material

Regulated medical waste accounts for only 9% to 15% of total waste in hospitals and 1% to 2% of total waste in dental offices [6]. Examples of regulated waste found in dental practice settings are solid waste soaked or saturated with blood or saliva (e.g., gauze saturated with blood after surgery), extracted teeth, surgically removed hard and soft tissues, and contaminated sharp items such as needles, scalpel blades, and wires [6].

Medical waste requires careful disposal and containment before collection and consolidation for treatment. A single, leak-resistant biohazard bag is usually adequate for containment of regulated medical wastes, provided the bag is sturdy and the waste can be discarded without contaminating the bag's exterior. Contamination or puncturing of the bag requires placement into a second biohazard bag. All bags should be securely closed for disposal.

Medical waste requiring storage should be kept in labeled, leak-proof, puncture-resistant containers under conditions that minimize or prevent foul odors. The storage area should be well-ventilated and inaccessible to pests. Any facility that generates regulated medical waste should have a regulated medical waste management plan to ensure health and environmental safety in accordance with federal, state, and local regulations [31].

DENTAL UNIT WATERLINES, BIOFILM, AND WATER QUALITY

The following information is taken from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention publication Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings [6].

Studies have shown that dental unit waterlines, such as narrow-bore plastic tubing that carries water to high-speed handpieces, air/water syringes, and ultrasonic scalers, can become colonized with micro-organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Protected by a polysaccharide layer known as a glycocalyx, these micro-organisms colonize and replicate on the interior surfaces of the tubing and form a biofilm. This biofilm serves as a reservoir that can increase the number of micro-organisms in the water used during dental treatment.

In 1993, the CDC recommended that dental waterlines be flushed at the beginning of the clinic day to reduce the microbial load. Dental unit water that remains untreated or unfiltered is unlikely to meet drinking water standards.

Commercial devices and procedures shown to improve the quality of water used in dental treatment include self-contained water systems with chemical treatment, in-line microfilters, and combinations of these treatments. Simply using tap, distilled, or sterile water will not eliminate bacterial contamination in treatment water if biofilms in the system are not controlled. Removal or inactivation of dental waterline biofilms requires use of chemical germicides. California law defines "germicide" as a chemical agent that can be used to disinfect items and surfaces based on the level of contamination [2].

Patient material, such as oral micro-organisms, blood, and saliva, can enter the dental water system during treatment. Devices connected to the dental water system that enter the patient's mouth should be flushed to discharge water and air for a minimum of 20 to 30 seconds after each patient to remove patient material that might have entered the turbine, air, or waterlines.

Manufactured dental units are now engineered to prevent retraction of oral fluids, but some older units are equipped with antiretraction valves that require periodic maintenance. Users should consult the owner's manual or contact the manufacturer to determine whether testing or maintenance of antiretraction valves or other devices is required. Even with antiretraction valves, flushing devices for a minimum of 20 to 30 seconds after each patient is recommended. The DBC standards require that, at the beginning of each work day, dental lines and devices must be purged with air or flushed with water for at least two minutes prior to attaching handpieces, scales, air/water syringe tips, or other devices [2].

7. ENGINEERING AND WORK PRACTICE CONTROLS

The following information is taken from the OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard, 1910.1030.

Engineering controls such as sharps disposal containers, self-sheathing needles, and safer medical devices (e.g., sharps with engineered sharps injury protections and needleless systems) isolate or remove the bloodborne pathogens hazard from the workplace. On the other hand, work practice controls reduce the likelihood of exposure by specifying the manner in which a task is performed (e.g., prohibiting recapping of needles by a two-handed technique).

Engineering and work practice controls are intended to work synergistically to eliminate or minimize employee exposure. These controls must be examined and maintained or replaced on a regular basis to ensure their effectiveness. To maintain a safe workplace, employers must provide handwashing facilities that are readily accessible to employees.

Contaminated needles and other contaminated sharps should not be bent, recapped, or removed unless the employer can demonstrate that there is no alternative or that such action is required by a specific procedure. Necessary bending, recapping, or needle removal must be accomplished through the use of a mechanical device or a one-handed scoop technique. Shearing or breaking of contaminated needles is prohibited. Immediately, or as soon as possible after use, contaminated reusable sharps (e.g., scalpels, dental knives) must be placed in appropriate containers until properly reprocessed. These containers must be:

- Puncture resistant

- Labeled or color-coded

- Leak-proof on the sides and bottom

- Maintained in accordance with OSHA requirements for reusable sharps

- Designed so personnel are not required to reach by hand into the container

- Located as close as possible to the point of use

Eating, drinking, smoking, applying cosmetics or lip balm, and handling contact lenses are prohibited in work areas where there is a reasonable likelihood of occupational exposure. Food and drink should not be kept in refrigerators, freezers, shelves, or cabinets or on countertops where blood or other potentially infectious material is present.

All procedures involving blood or other potentially infectious material must be performed in such a manner as to minimize splashing, spraying, spattering, and generation of droplets of these substances. Splatter shields should be used on medical equipment associated with risk-prone procedures.

Equipment that may become contaminated with blood or other potentially infectious material must be examined before servicing or shipping and should be decontaminated as necessary, unless the employer can demonstrate that decontamination of such equipment or portions of such equipment is not feasible. A readily observable label should be attached to the equipment stating which portions remain contaminated. The employer must ensure that this information is conveyed to all affected employees, the servicing representative, and the manufacturer before handling, servicing, or shipping, so appropriate precautions may be taken.

CLEANING, DISINFECTION, AND STERILIZATION

Application of accepted infection control principles helps maintain a safe environment for both patients and dental care workers. This includes proper use of Standard Precautions and application of approved techniques for cleaning, disinfection, sterilization, and reprocessing of dental equipment. Healthcare policies must identify—primarily on the basis of an item's intended use—whether cleaning and disinfection or sterilization is indicated (Table 2) [7].

Table 2: METHODS FOR STERILIZING AND DISINFECTING PATIENT-CARE ITEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SURFACES

Process

Result

Method

Examples

Patient Care Items

Environmental Surfaces

Sterilization

Destroys all micro-organisms, including bacterial spores.

Heat-automated, high temperature

Steam, dry heat, unsaturated chemical vapor

Heat-tolerant critical and semicritical

NA

Heat-automated, low temperature

Ethylene oxide gas, plasma sterilization

Heat-sensitive critical and semicritical

Liquid immersiona

Glutaraldehyde, glutaraldehydes with phenols, hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen peroxide with peracetic acid, peracetic acid

High-level disinfection

Destroys all micro-organisms, but not necessarily high numbers of bacterial spores.

Heat-automated

Washer disinfector

Heat-sensitive semicritical

NA

Liquid immersiona

Glutaraldehyde, glutaraldehydes with phenols, hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen peroxide with peracetic acid, ortho-phthalaldehyde

Intermediate-level disinfection

Destroys vegetative bacteria and most fungi and viruses. Inactivates Mycobacterium bovisb. Not necessarily capable of killing bacterial spores.

Liquid contact

EPA-registered hospital disinfectant with label claim of tuberculocidal activity (e.g., chlorine-containing products, quaternary ammonium compounds with alcohol, phenolics, bromides, iodophors, EPA-registered chlorine-based product)

Noncritical with visible blood

Clinical contact surfaces, blood spills on housekeeping surfaces

Low-level disinfection

Destroys most vegetative bacteria and certain fungi and viruses. Does not inactivate Mycobacterium bovis.

Liquid contact

EPA-registered hospital disinfectant with no label claim regarding tuberculocidal activity. OSHA also requires label claim of HIV and HBV potency for use of low-level disinfectant for use on clinical contact surfaces (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds, some phenolics, some iodophors)

Noncritical without visible blood

Clinical contact surfaces, housekeeping surfaces

aContact time is the single critical variable distinguishing the sterilization process from high-level disinfection with FDA-cleared liquid chemical sterilants. High-level disinfection uses shorter submersion times.

bInactivation of the more resistant Mycobacterium bovis is used as a benchmark to measure germicidal potency.

Source: [6]

Cleaning is defined as the removal of visible soil (organic and inorganic material) from objects and surfaces; normally, it is accomplished manually or mechanically using water with detergents or enzymatic products. Decontamination reduces the number of pathogenic micro-organisms on objects, usually with a 0.5% chlorine solution [7]. Thorough cleaning and decontamination are essential before high-level disinfection and sterilization because inorganic and organic materials that remain on the surfaces of instruments interfere with the effectiveness of these processes.

Disinfection is a process that eliminates many or all pathogenic micro-organisms, except bacterial spores, on inanimate objects. In healthcare settings, objects are usually disinfected using liquid chemicals or wet pasteurization (i.e., the use of hot water to destroy micro-organisms). There are three levels of disinfection:

- High-level disinfection: Used to disinfect patient-care equipment that touches mucous membranes or blood.

- Intermediate-level disinfection: Used mainly to disinfect items that have contact with intact skin, but is appropriate for certain semicritical items (e.g., chair arms).

- Low-level disinfection: Used to disinfect the healthcare environment or items that touch intact skin.

Surface disinfection is an important part of environmental cleaning. Most bacteria and mycobacteria (e.g., TB) survive for months on dry surfaces [32]. Respiratory viruses, such as coxsackie or influenza, can persist on surfaces for a few days. Hepatitis viruses and HIV can persist for more than one week, and herpes viruses have been shown to persist from only a few hours up to seven days [32]. All surfaces in patient care areas should be cleaned then disinfected according to the manufacturer's instructions and allowed to dry completely.

Sterilization is a process that destroys or eliminates all forms of microbial life and is carried out in healthcare facilities by physical or chemical methods. Sterile and nonsterile are absolute concepts. If a sterile item is touched by anything nonsterile, the formerly sterile item is contaminated.

The sterilization area should be separate from any patient care or staff break areas. The sterilization section of the processing area should include the sterilizers and related supplies, with adequate space for loading, unloading, and cool down [6]. The area can also include incubators for analyzing spore tests and enclosed storage for sterile items and single-use items. Manufacturer and local building code specifications will determine placement and room ventilation requirements.

According to the CDC guideline, heat-tolerant dental instruments usually are sterilized by steam under pressure (autoclaving), dry heat, or unsaturated chemical vapor [6]. All sterilization should be performed by using medical sterilization equipment cleared by the FDA. The sterilization times, temperatures, and other operating parameters recommended by the manufacturer of the equipment used, as well as instructions for correct use of containers, wraps, and chemical or biological indicators, should always be followed [6]. Sterilization most often fails due to overloading.

Devices being sterilized should first be cleaned, as debris interferes with the sterilization process. If an ultrasonic unit is utilized, it should be covered while actively in use. Instruments should be fully dry prior to packaging and storage.

Storage practices for wrapped sterilized instruments can be either date- or event-related. Packages containing sterile supplies should be inspected before use to verify barrier integrity and dryness. Although some facilities continue to date every sterilized package and use shelf-life practices, other facilities have switched to event-related practices [6]. This approach recognizes that the product should remain sterile indefinitely, unless an event causes it to become contaminated (e.g., torn or wet packaging). Even for event-related packaging, the date of sterilization should be placed on the package, and if multiple sterilizers are used in the facility, the sterilizer used should be indicated on the outside of the packaging material to facilitate the retrieval of processed items in the event of a sterilization failure [6,7]. If packaging is compromised, the instruments should be re-cleaned, sterilized again, and packaged in new wrap [7].

Categorizing Patient-Care Items

Patient-care items (e.g., dental instruments, devices, and equipment) are categorized using the Spaulding classification system as critical, semicritical, or noncritical, depending on the potential risk for infection associated with their intended use. Critical items are those items that enter sterile spaces, such as soft tissue or bone. These items pose the greatest risk of transmitting infection and require sterilization.

Semicritical items touch intact mucous membranes and have a lower risk of transmission. Because the majority of semicritical items in dentistry are heat-tolerant, they should be sterilized using heat. If a semicritical item is heat-sensitive, it should, at a minimum, be processed with high-level disinfection, which kills all microbial life except spores [6,7].

Noncritical items pose the least risk of transmission of infection, contacting only intact skin, an effective barrier to most micro-organisms. In the majority of cases, cleaning and disinfection with an EPA-registered hospital disinfectant is adequate. When the item is visibly contaminated with blood or other potentially infectious material, an EPA-registered hospital disinfectant with a tuberculocidal claim (i.e., intermediate-level disinfectant) should be used [6,7].

High-speed dental hand pieces, low-speed hand piece components used intraorally, and other dental unit attachments (e.g., reusable air or water syringe tips and ultrasonic scaler tips) must be heat-sterilized between patients. Single-use disposable instruments such as prophylaxis angles, cups, brushes, tips for high-speed evacuators, saliva ejectors, and air and water syringe tips must be used for one patient only and discarded. Proper functioning of the sterilization cycle must be verified at least weekly through the use of a biologic indicator (such as a spore test). Test results should be maintained for 12 months [2]. Studies have demonstrated variability among dental practices in meeting sterilization standards. In one study, 49% of respondents did not challenge autoclaves with biological indicators. Other studies using biologic indicators found a high proportion (15% to 65%) of positive spore tests after assessing the efficacy of sterilizers used in dental offices [7].

Dental unit water lines must be anti-retractive. At the beginning of each workday, dental unit lines should be purged with air or flushed with water for at least two minutes prior to attaching handpieces, scalers, and other devices. The dental unit line must be flushed between each patient for a minimum of 20 seconds [2]. Single-use barriers may be used on those environmental surfaces that are difficult to clean and disinfect.

Laboratory Areas

According to California regulations, splash shields and equipment guards must be used on dental laboratory lathes. Fresh pumice and a disinfected, sterilized, or new ragwheel should be used for each patient. Devices used to polish, trim, or adjust contaminated intraoral devices must be disinfected or sterilized [2].

Intraoral items, such as impressions, bite registrations, and prosthetic or orthodontic appliances, must be cleaned and disinfected with an intermediate-level disinfectant before manipulation in the laboratory and before placement in the patient's mouth. Such items should be thoroughly rinsed prior to placement in the patient's mouth [2].

Reprocessing Reusable Medical Equipment

Reusable instruments, medical devices, and equipment should be managed and reprocessed according to recommended and appropriate methods. Industry guidelines as well as equipment and chemical manufacturer recommendations should be used to develop and update reprocessing policies and procedures. Written instructions should be available for each instrument, medical device, and equipment reprocessed. The FDA has issued guidance on ensuring the safety of reusable medical devices [33].

Single-Use Devices

A single-use device is a device that is intended for use on a single patient during a single procedure. An unused single-use device is referred to as an original device. A reprocessed single-use device is an original device that has previously been used on a patient and has been subjected to additional processing and manufacturing for the purpose of an additional single use on a patient [34].

8. PROTECTING DENTAL HEALTHCARE WORKERS

Protecting dental professionals is an integral part of every dental organization's general program for infection prevention and control. The objectives usually include [35,36]:

- Educating personnel about the principles of infection control and emphasizing individual responsibility

- Providing care to personnel for work-related illnesses or exposures

- Identifying work-related infection risks and implementing appropriate preventive measures

- Containing costs by preventing infectious diseases that result in absenteeism and disability

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES

An occupational exposure is defined as a percutaneous injury or contact of mucous membrane or nonintact skin with blood, tissue, or other potentially infectious material, most commonly a needlestick injury. The risk of infection depends on several factors, including:

- Whether the exposure was from a hollow-bore needle or other sharp instrument

- Whether the exposure was to nonintact skin or mucous membranes

- The amount of blood involved

- The amount of contagion present in the source person's blood

If a sharps injury occurs, wash the exposed area with soap and water. Do not "milk" or squeeze the wound. There is no evidence that using antiseptics will reduce the risk of transmission for any bloodborne pathogens; however, the use of antiseptics is not contraindicated. In the event that the wound needs suturing, emergency treatment should be obtained. The risk of contracting HIV from this type of exposure is extremely rare. Only 58 cases of confirmed occupational HIV transmission to healthcare personnel have been reported in the United States, with an additional 150 possible transmissions reported to the CDC [37]. There are no documented cases of a dental healthcare professional contracting HIV from an occupational exposure.

OSHA's final rule for occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens requires dental employers to arrange a confidential medical evaluation and follow-up for any employee reporting an exposure incident [3]. An exposure incident is any eye, mouth, mucous membrane, nonintact skin, or other parenteral contact with blood or other potentially infectious material. Saliva in dental procedures is treated as potentially infectious material.

Following an exposure, the dental employer must refer the exposed employee to a licensed healthcare professional who can provide information and counseling and discuss how to prevent further spread of a potential infection. The exposed employee is entitled to appropriate follow-up and evaluation of any reported illness to determine if the symptoms may be related to HIV or hepatitis B infection.

Prompt response is necessary whenever an occupational exposure occurs. If possible, the patient should be interviewed to determine if any risk factors or bloodborne pathogens not previously disclosed are present. The patient may be tested along with the employee, if he or she agrees, in order to obtain the most information possible. Testing and postexposure prophylaxis may be conducted at an occupational injury clinic. All events leading up to and after the exposure should be documented in a written report.

Postexposure Prophylaxis

Postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) involves the provision of medications to someone who has had a substantial exposure, usually to blood, in order to reduce the likelihood of infection. PEP is available for HIV and hepatitis B virus. Although there is no PEP recommended for hepatitis C virus, limited data indicate that antiviral therapy might be beneficial when started early in the course of infection [38]. For employees who have not received the hepatitis B vaccine series, the vaccine (and in some circumstances hepatitis B immunoglobulin) should be offered as soon as possible (within seven days) after the exposure incident. The effectiveness of hepatitis B immunoglobulin administered more than seven days after exposure is unknown. PEP has been the standard of care for healthcare providers with substantial occupational exposures since 1996 and must be provided in accordance with the recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service [38].

TUBERCULOSIS PREVENTION

California has one of the highest incidence rates of TB in the country, primarily because of its large immigrant and other high-risk populations (e.g., homeless persons) [39]. The TB infection rate is 14 times higher among foreign-born individuals than among those born in the United States. The rates among Asian and Black individuals born outside the United States were 50 and 51 times higher, respectively, than that of U.S.-born White persons [39]. To prevent the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in dental care settings, infection-control policies should be developed based on the community TB risk assessment and reviewed annually. The policies should include appropriate screening for latent or active TB disease in dental care providers, education about the risk for TB transmission, and provisions for detection and management of patients who have suspected or confirmed TB disease.

The CDC recommends that all dental care providers be screened for TB upon hire, using either a tuberculin skin test or blood test [40]. In addition, the California Department of Public Health requires that healthcare facilities in California perform initial and annual TB screening of employees [41].

Patients with symptoms of TB should be identified by screening; dental treatment should be deferred until active TB has been ruled out or the patient is no longer infectious following treatment. The potentially active TB patient should be promptly referred to an appropriate medical setting for evaluation of possible infectiousness and should be kept in the dental care setting only long enough to arrange for referral. Standard Precautions are not sufficient to prevent transmission of active TB.

A diagnosis of active respiratory TB should be considered for any patient with the following symptoms:

- Coughing for more than three weeks

- Loss of appetite

- Unexplained weight loss

- Night sweats

- Bloody sputum or hemoptysis

- Hoarseness

- Fever

- Fatigue

- Chest pain

A person with latent TB (positive skin test and no symptoms) can be treated in a dental office using standard infection control precautions [42]. This person has no symptoms and cannot transmit TB to others as there are no spores in his or her sputum.

The American Dental Association recommends that all patients be asked about any history of TB or exposure to TB, including signs and symptoms and medical conditions that increase their risk for TB disease. The Health History Form, developed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, can be used to ask these questions.

If a patient with suspected or confirmed infectious TB disease requires urgent dental care, that care should be provided in a setting that meets the requirements for California ATD standards and airborne infection isolation. Respiratory protection (with a fitted N95 disposable respirator) should be used while performing procedures on such patients. Standard surgical masks are not designed to protect against TB transmission [42].

VACCINATION

Hepatitis B

Cal/OSHA guidelines require that healthcare workers who perform tasks that may involve exposure to blood or bodily fluids must have hepatitis B vaccination made available to them within 10 working days of initial assignment. The employee must also be given free information about the efficacy, safety, and benefits of vaccination [43].

The hepatitis B vaccine is given in a series of three injections at 0, 1, and 6 months. If one of the injections is missed, the series does not need to be restarted. The CDC recommends if the series is interrupted, the second or third dose should be administered as soon as possible; the second and third doses should be separated by an interval of at least eight weeks [44]. No booster is necessary. Follow-up serologic testing two months after vaccination (to ensure efficacy) is recommended. The provision of employer-supplied hepatitis B vaccination may be delayed until after probable exposure for employees whose sole exposure risk is the provision of first aid.

The high risk of hepatitis B virus exposure among healthcare personnel makes it imperative that clinical dental personnel be vaccinated. Vaccination can protect both workers and patients from hepatitis B virus infection and, whenever possible, should be completed when dentists or other dental care personnel are in training [6].

Influenza

Influenza is primarily transmitted from person to person via large, virus-laden droplets generated when infected persons cough or sneeze. These large droplets can settle on the mucosal surfaces of the upper respiratory tracts of susceptible persons who are within 3 feet of infected persons. Transmission may also occur through direct contact or indirect contact with respiratory secretions, such as when touching surfaces contaminated with influenza virus and then touching the eyes, nose, or mouth. The CDC strongly recommends that all healthcare personnel, especially those who have contact with patients at high risk, who have high-risk medical conditions, or who are older than 50 years of age, receive an annual (seasonal) influenza vaccination [45].

TRAINING AND EDUCATION

Dental professionals should also fulfill all federal and state requirements for infection control training. New employees, or employees being transferred into jobs involving tasks or activities with potential exposure to blood or other potentially infectious material, must receive bloodborne pathogen training before assignment to tasks in which an occupational exposure may occur. Retraining is required annually or when changes in procedures or tasks affecting occupational exposure occur. Employees should be provided access to a qualified trainer to answer questions during the training session.

9. CONCLUSION

Effective infection control techniques are critical to reducing the incidence of infections in dental facilities. Antiseptic techniques and antibiotics will kill micro-organisms, while proper hand hygiene will block their transmission. Gloves, gowns, and masks remove dental professionals from the transmission cycle by protecting them from contact with micro-organisms. Contact Precautions and isolation techniques help patients avoid being vectors of transmission. Engineering controls help to make the workplace safer, while administrative controls ensure that written protocols are in place and followed. Lastly, ensuring that dental professionals are immune or vaccinated can help decrease the availability of potential hosts.

10. DENTAL BOARD OF CALIFORNIA GENERAL PROVISIONS: SECTION 1005. MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR INFECTION CONTROL

The Dental Board of California General Provisions: Section 1005. Minimum Standards for Infection Control is available online at https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I3F75D9A0B95D11E0A3CAA6663E6464AA.

11. CAL/OSHA COVID-19 STANDARD

In light of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Cal/OSHA has developed an Emergency Temporary Standard to help protect healthcare providers and patients. The Standard must be re-authorized (and revised, if necessary) every six months. It may be accessed online at https://www.dir.ca.gov/oshsb/documents/Dec162021-COVID-19-Prevention-Emergency-txtcourtesy-2nd-Readoption.pdf.

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40. Jensen PA, Lambert LA, Iademarco MF, Ridzon R. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(RR-17):1-141.

41. California Department of Public Health. Licensing and Certification. CCR, Title 22, Chapter 3. Skilled Nursing Facilities, Section 72535 (b). Available at https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CHCQ/LCP/Pages/Title-22-for-Use-of-TST.aspx. Last accessed January 18, 2022.

42. American Dental Association. Tuberculosis. Available at https://www.ada.org/resources/research/science-and-research-institute/oral-health-topics/tuberculosis-overview-and-dental-treatment-conside. Last accessed January 18, 2022.

43. California Department of Industrial Relations. California Code of Regulations: Title 8, Subchapter 7.16.109. Available at https://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/5193.html. Last accessed January 18, 2022.

44. Schillie S, Vellozzi C, Reingold A, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR. 2018;67(1):1-31.

45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Seasonal Influenza Vaccination Resources for Health Professionals. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/vaccination/index.htm. Last accessed January 18, 2022.

50072 • Migraine: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Advances

A. José Lança, MD, PhD

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2021 NetCE, All rights reserved.

Advances have provided insightful evidence regarding the role of the trigeminal system, cortical spreading depression, ion-channel pathology, and signaling molecules, such as nitric oxide, adenosine, and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), in the pathophysiology of migraine. The differential diagnosis between migraine and the most common medical conditions (e.g., cluster and tension headache) has been extensively reviewed. However, the differential diagnosis and management of other cephalalgias relevant to medical and dental practice, such as cranial neuralgias, trigeminal pathology, temporomandibular joint dysfunction, and oral pathologies, are seldom addressed. An approach combining pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies, including alternative and complementary approaches, will be discussed. This course provides an integrated approach to the clinically relevant advances in the understanding of migraine pathophysiology and novel therapies and focuses on the differential diagnosis between migraine and a group of common, yet often overlooked, medical and dental conditions.

Table of Contents

50072 • Migraine: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Advances

Course Overview

Audience

Course Objective

Learning Objectives

Faculty

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planner

Division Planner Disclosure

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Director Disclosure Statement

About the Sponsor

Disclosure Statement

Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PREVALENCE, INCIDENCE, AND SOCIAL BURDEN OF MIGRAINE

3. CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRAINES

4. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MIGRAINE

CORTICAL SPREADING DEPRESSION AND TRIGEMINAL NEUROPATHIES

SIGNALING MOLECULES AND GENETIC MUTATIONS

5. MIGRAINE DIAGNOSIS

ACUTE MIGRAINE WITH AND WITHOUT AURA

CHRONIC MIGRAINE

LONG-TERM ASSESSMENT OF MIGRAINE PATTERN AND PATIENT STAGING

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

6. MIGRAINE TREATMENT

NONPHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES

CLINICAL MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE MIGRAINE ATTACKS

PREVENTIVE TREATMENT

TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY CHRONIC MIGRAINE

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW THERAPIES FOR MIGRAINE

MIGRAINE IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

CONSIDERATIONS FOR NON-ENGLISH-PROFICIENT PATIENTS

7. CONCLUSION

8. RESOURCES

Works Cited

Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations

50072 • Migraine: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Advances

Education Category. Medical / Surgical

Release Date. 07/01/2021

Expiration Date. 06/30/2024

Course Overview

Advances have provided insightful evidence regarding the role of the trigeminal system, cortical spreading depression, ion-channel pathology, and signaling molecules, such as nitric oxide, adenosine, and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), in the pathophysiology of migraine. The differential diagnosis between migraine and the most common medical conditions (e.g., cluster and tension headache) has been extensively reviewed. However, the differential diagnosis and management of other cephalalgias relevant to medical and dental practice, such as cranial neuralgias, trigeminal pathology, temporomandibular joint dysfunction, and oral pathologies, are seldom addressed. An approach combining pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies, including alternative and complementary approaches, will be discussed. This course provides an integrated approach to the clinically relevant advances in the understanding of migraine pathophysiology and novel therapies and focuses on the differential diagnosis between migraine and a group of common, yet often overlooked, medical and dental conditions.

Audience

This course is designed for dental professionals involved in the care of patients with known or suspected migraine.

Course Objective

The purpose of this course is to provide an update of research elucidating the pathophysiology of migraine, which has resulted in "mechanism-based" therapies; to review the differential diagnosis of headache disorders; and to summarize the current and evidence-based guidelines for clinical management of migraine. The course will highlight the need for a graded therapeutic response based on frequency of attacks and pattern of symptoms, and the importance of patient education and self-management techniques as a means of ensuring compliance and improving outcomes.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the prevalence of migraine in relation to age, gender, and such factors as socioeconomic status, education, and comorbidities.

2. Provide an updated overview of the progress made in the understanding of migraine pathophysiology.

3. Review the clinical profiles and diagnostic criteria of migraine with or without aura, and summarize disease staging.

4. Provide an update overview of the differential diagnosis of migraines focusing on medical and dental conditions, such as temporomandibular disorders, sinusitis, and orofacial pain.

5. Discuss the preventive and acute treatment of migraine.

Faculty

A. José Lança, MD, PhD, received his Medical Degree at the University of Coimbra in Coimbra, Portugal, and completed his internship at the University Hospital, Coimbra. He received his PhD in Neurosciences from a joint program between the Faculties of Medicine of the University of Coimbra, Portugal, and the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. He was a Gulbenkian Foundation Scholar and received a Young Investigator Award by the American Brain & Behavior Research Foundation.
Dr. Lança participated in international courses and conferences on neurosciences. He has contributed to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the ontogenetic development of the brain opiatergic system. As a research scientist at the Addiction Research Foundation (ARF) in Toronto, he initiated research on the functional role played by dopaminergic cell transplants on alcohol consumption, leading to the publication of the first research reports on cell transplantation and modulation of an addictive behavior. Subsequently, he also investigated the role played by other neurotransmitter systems in the limbic system and mechanisms of reward, co-expression of classical neurotransmitters and neuropeptides and potential role in neuropsychiatric disorders.
He is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology at the Faculty of Medicine and at the Faculty of Dentistry at the University of Toronto, where he lectures and directs several undergraduate and postgraduate pharmacology and clinical pharmacology courses. He was the Program Director for Undergraduate Studies in the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology of the University of Toronto. He has developed clinical pharmacology courses for the Medical Radiation Sciences and Chiropody Programs of The Michener Institute for Health Sciences at the University of Toronto.
Dr. Lança’s commitment to medical education started while a medical student, teaching in the Department of Histology and Embryology, where he became cross-appointed after graduation. In Toronto, he has contributed extensively to curriculum development and teaching of pharmacology to undergraduate, graduate, and medical students.
He has authored research and continuing education in peer-reviewed publications and is the author of six chapters in pharmacology textbooks. Dr. Lança has conducted research in various areas including neuropharmacology, pharmacology of alcoholism and drug addiction, and herbal medications.
He has developed and taught courses and seminars in continuing medical education and continuing dental education. His commitment to continuing education emphasizes an interdisciplinary approach to clinical pharmacology.

Faculty Disclosure

Contributing faculty, A. José Lança, MD, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Division Planner

William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD

Division Planner Disclosure

The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Sarah Campbell

Director Disclosure Statement

The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.

Implicit Bias in Health Care

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern, as there is some evidence that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions. Implicit biases may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages.

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be categorized as change-based or control-based. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

1. INTRODUCTION

Migraine is the leading condition of recurrent cephalalgias of moderate or severe intensity. It is the most common type of headache in patients who seek medical treatment. According to the 2016 Global Burden of Disease study, over 1 billion persons experience a migraine headache each year [20]. Migraine is among the top five most disabling medical conditions worldwide and the burden is greatest in women between 15 and 45 years of age [20,191].

Migraine has been identified as one of the most common neurologic disorders, and in the United States, its prevalence in the general population is approximately 15% [190]. In children, the prevalence ranges from 1% to 4% and does not present a gender bias. However, after menarche, its prevalence in women (20.5%) is more than two times greater than the prevalence in men [2,3].

Medical advances have provided insightful evidence regarding the role of the trigeminal system, cortical spreading depression, ion-channel pathology, and signaling molecules (such as nitric oxide, adenosine, and calcitonin gene-related peptide [CGRP]) in the pathophysiology of migraine. Together, they have led to the "mechanism-based" development of new drugs that show promising clinical efficacy coupled with a lower occurrence of adverse effects. The improved risk/benefit profile of a newer generation of antimigraine medications will be discussed in this course.

The differential diagnosis and management of other cephalalgias relevant to medical and dental practice, such as cranial neuralgias, trigeminal pathology, temporomandibular joint dysfunction, and oral pathologies, are seldom addressed in discussions of migraine. However, this course will extensively review the differential diagnosis between migraine and the most common medical conditions with similar presentation (e.g., cluster and tension headache).

2. PREVALENCE, INCIDENCE, AND SOCIAL BURDEN OF MIGRAINE

Cephalalgias have a lifetime prevalence of more than 90% and an estimated prevalence of 50% in the adult population worldwide [2,3]. Primary headaches are the fourth most common cause for patients to seek emergency care in the United States [4,5]. Secondary headaches, although less frequent, have well-defined etiologies, including infections (e.g., sinusitis, meningitis), cerebrovascular disorders (e.g., ischemia, thrombus, hemorrhage), or neoplasias, and are diagnosed based on history, examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies (e.g., computed tomography [CT] scan, magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) [6; 7].

According to the International Classification of Headache Disorders, published by the International Headache Society, there are four main types of primary headaches: tension-type headache, cluster headache/trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs), migraine, and a group that includes miscellaneous types of primary headaches not included in the previous three groups [6,8]. Tension-type headache is the most common, with a prevalence of 30% to 78% [2,6,8,9]. Typically, tension-type headache is bilateral with mild-to-moderate intensity and non-pulsating quality. It is neither associated with nausea nor aggravated by routine physical activity [6,8,9].

Cluster headache and TACs are severe and uncommon headaches with a prevalence of 0.07% to 0.4% and occur more commonly in men than in women [10]. These headaches are intermittent, short-lasting, and excruciatingly painful unilateral headaches. The quality of the pain is sharp or stabbing but not pulsating, which typically differentiates them from migraines. The pain peaks within 10 to 15 minutes and persists for an average of one hour. During cluster headache, patients do not seek rest (quite unlike during migraine headache), but are noticeably agitated and restless and present with parasympathetic autonomic dysfunction (e.g., conjunctival injection, lacrimation) [6,8,9].

Evidence Based Practice Recommendation

According to the American College of Radiology, trigeminal autonomic cephalgia are diagnosed clinically, but head MRI may be appropriate, because secondary causes need to be excluded. Head magnetic resonance angiography and computed tomography angiography are not usually indicated initially.

https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69482/Narrative

Last Accessed: June 21, 2021

Level of Evidence: Expert Opinion/Consensus Statement

The miscellaneous group of primary headaches is made up of a variety of conditions, including thunderclap headache and exertional headache. These conditions can mimic potentially serious secondary headaches and require thorough clinical evaluation supported by appropriate laboratory tests and imaging procedures. Thunderclap headache occurs suddenly, reaches maximum intensity within one minute, and lasts 1 to 24 hours or even several days. Typically, patients describe the pain of a thunderclap headache as an "explosion in the head" or "being hit with a bat" [11]. Thunderclap headache mimics the pain of a ruptured cerebral aneurysm. Considering that up to 25% of patients with thunderclap headache have subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and that the mortality rate from SAH is approximately 50%, these patients require emergency evaluation, including detailed physical examination and CT scan. Imaging tests are used in the differential diagnosis with other potentially life-threatening conditions, such as intracerebral hemorrhage, cerebral venous thrombosis, hypertensive emergency, and ischemic stroke, in addition to SAH. Lumbar puncture is recommended in patients with thunderclap headache and non-diagnostic CT scan. The risk/benefit of CT or MRI angiography should be taken into account in patients with normal brain CT and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, considering that the risk of SAH and death is extremely low in this group [12,13]. Clinically, it is recommended that the diagnosis of thunderclap headache should apply only when no specific etiology is identified despite comprehensive diagnostic evaluation [8,11,12].

Exertional headache is triggered by physical exercise and is a pulsating headache that lasts from minutes to two days. These patients require comprehensive neurologic evaluation and imaging studies to help eliminate possible underlying secondary causes, including SAH and arterial dissection [6,8,9,14].

As noted, migraine is the leading condition of recurrent cephalalgias of moderate-to-severe intensity. Pain usually builds up over a 1- to 2-hour period and lasts 4 to 72 hours. These headaches present at least two of the following characteristics:

- Typically pulsating or throbbing

- Unilateral and localized in the frontotem-poral and ocular area, although the pain may be felt anywhere in the head or neck

- Aggravated by routine activity

In addition, migraine is usually accompanied by photophobia and/or phonophobia and nausea and/or vomiting [6,8,9].

In Western countries, including the United States, migraine has been identified as one of the most common neurologic disorders. The age-adjusted prevalence of migraine and severe headache in the United States has remained stable for more than two decades. According to a 2020 review of national health surveillance data, the prevalence of migraine is 15.9% in adults, and highest among those 18 to 44 years of age (18.7%) [228]. The biologic sex ratio is also stable, with 21% of women and 10.7% of men affected. The prevalence of migraine is highest in American Indian/Alaska Natives (22.1%) compared with White, Black, or Hispanic Americans (15.6% to 16.3%), and lowest in Asians (9.1%). In childhood, migraine is less common (1% to 4%) and equally prevalent among boys and girls [18,19]. The prevalence increases in adolescence (12%), affecting prepubertal boys and postmenarche girls [1]. The lifetime prevalence of migraine increases from age 12 to 40 years then declines thereafter in both sexes [17].

The individual, familial, and social impact of migraine is significant. In the United States, approximately 23% of households have at least one member who suffers from migraine [17,20,191]. More than half of migraineurs report that severe headaches cause substantial impairment in daily activities and require bed rest, while one-third of migraine sufferers missed at least one day of work or school in the previous three months because of migraine and work or school productivity was reduced by at least 50% [17]. An estimated 4 million emergency department visits each year are for migraine/severe headache, and among female patients 15 to 64 years of age, migraine is the third most common reason for emergency department visits [228].

The burden of migraine falls disproportionately on persons of lower socioeconomic status. Among respondents with migraine who participated in governmental surveys conducted between 2009 and 2018, 38% were unemployed, 42% subsisted at or near the poverty level, 34% had received a high school education or below, and 18% were uninsured [228]. Socioeconomic factors could influence prevalence and burden of migraine by exerting a negative impact on incidence and severity, nutritional status, and access to care and effective therapies.

Migraine accounts for nearly 4.2% of years lived with disability, and the Global Burden of Disease study has ranked it among the top five most disabling medical conditions [5,17,20,21,191]. Specifically, chronic migraine represents close to 50% of all cases of chronic headache and has a lifetime prevalence of 1% to 2%. The incidence is higher in women, those of two or more races, and those who are obese and/or have a diagnosis of diabetes [22,23,190]. Longitudinal studies of chronic migraine show the devastating effects of the condition, with most patients in the United States reporting increased disability after a two-year follow-up [24,25].

3. CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRAINES

The International Classification of Headache Disorders categorizes migraines as acute or chronic [6,8]. Acute or episodic migraine with aura is characterized by "transient focal neurologic symptoms that usually precede or sometimes accompany the headache" [8]. Some patients have premonitory symptoms occurring hours or days before the headache as well as a headache resolution phase. Premonitory and resolution symptoms include hyperactivity, hypoactivity, depression, cravings for particular foods, repetitive yawning, fatigue, and neck stiffness and/or pain [8]. Twenty-five percent of patients with migraine with aura experience visual disturbances, including flashing lights (i.e., phosphenes), hemianopsia, and scotomas, that precede the onset of the cephalalgia and last no longer than 60 minutes [9]. In 30% of patients with migraine with aura, sensory symptoms, such as perioral numbness or tingling, are present. Although less common, hemiparesis, speech and/or language impairment (e.g., dysarthrias), and/or brainstem symptoms (e.g., vertigo, ataxia) may also occur [8,9].

Acute migraine without aura is defined as a recurrent headache disorder manifesting in attacks lasting 4 to 72 hours with unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate or severe intensity, aggravation with routine physical activity, and association with nausea and/or photophobia and phonophobia, in the absence of aura. Migraine without aura is seen in less than 10% of women during their menstrual cycle, but tends to last longer and be accompanied by more severe nausea than cases occurring outside of menstruation [6,8].

The criteria of chronic migraine were updated and included in the revised ICHD-2R, and later confirmed in the ICHD-3 [8,26]. Chronic migraine is defined as a tension-type headache and/or migraine headache occurring 15 or more days per month for more than three months and having the features of migraine headache on at least eight days per month [8,26]. Pain medication overuse is the most common reversible cause of headaches resembling chronic migraine [8,27]. Previously, the ICHD-2R criteria noted that the diagnosis of chronic migraine should not apply to patients with medication overuse; however, the updated ICHD-3 includes medication overuse as the most common cause of symptoms suggestive of chronic migraine and indicates that chronic migraine often reverts to an episodic migraine after drug withdrawal in approximately 50% of patients [8].

4. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MIGRAINE

Traditionally, migraine was classified as a typical neurovascular disorder with unilateral extracranial vasodilation of the frontal branch of the superficial temporal artery ipsilateral to the headache [28]. The vasogenic theory is consistent with the headache-inducing properties of vasodilating drugs (e.g., nitroglycerine) and the therapeutic properties of vasoconstrictors (e.g., ergotamine). This localized vasodilation was considered to be the rebound of an initial vasoconstriction and transient hypovascularization in discrete brain regions. However, a number of imaging studies have revealed a discrepancy between the temporal profile of vascular dysregulation and migraine pain. This discrepancy is further supported by the fact that vasodilating neuropeptides, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide, do not induce migraine pain [29,30].

Alternatively, the neurogenic theory views migraine as the combination of neuronal hyperactivity with a local process of neurogenic inflammation triggered by an increase in pro-inflammatory mediators such as CGRP, neurokinin, and substance P [29,31]. In addition, low levels of the endogenous opioid enkephalin found during migraine correlate to a decrease in pain threshold and are responsible for the reported regional allodynia of the head and upper trunk [32,33].

The diversity of clinical manifestations observed by patients with migraine is an indication no single theoretical model is likely to account for the complex pathophysiology of the disease. Rather, migraine is the product of multiple mechanisms affecting broad areas of the central nervous system. Over the past decade, research findings have provided insightful evidence regarding the role of cortical spreading depression, trigeminal nerve activity, signaling molecules (e.g., serotonin, CGRP, nitric oxide), and genetic alteration of ion channels and transporters in the pathophysiology of the disease [29,32,34,35]. It is now known that the pathogenesis of migraine involves the trigeminal nerve and its axonal projections to the intracranial vasculature (the trigeminovascular system) [229]. Neuronal afferent fibers innervate the meninges and its vessels and also project to areas within the brain. Activation of the trigeminovascular system, which releases vasoactive substances and inflammatory mediators, is followed by further sensitization and then relay of nociceptive signals to cortical areas that subserve perception of pain [229]. Progress in understanding these components of pathogenesis has enabled development of mechanism-based, targeted therapies with increased clinical efficacy and fewer adverse effects [36].

CORTICAL SPREADING DEPRESSION AND TRIGEMINAL NEUROPATHIES

Cortical spreading depression is an intense wave of neuronal and glial excitation (i.e., depolarization) progressing in the cerebral cortex at a rate of 2–3 mm per minute. This wave of depolarization is followed by transient suppression of spontaneous neuronal activity (hyperpolarization) and changes in vascular diameter and blood flow caused partly by introduction of inflammatory molecules and CGRP to the dura [37,229]. Clinically, the net effect is an aura followed by migraine headache. Cortical spreading depression is the neurophysiologic event typically associated with migraine with aura and the activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors. The direct intercellular transfer of ions via gap junctions and the release of inflammatory mediators are required for cortical spreading depression to occur [32,38,39]. However, the precise role of cortical spreading depression in migraine without aura remains elusive. Animal models have shown that induction of cortical spreading depression causes meningeal vasodilation, a mechanism that requires participation of the trigeminal nerve [40]. The clinical relevance of cortical spreading depression in migraine has also been supported by imaging techniques, namely positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) [41,42,43,44].

The trigeminal nerve (V) is a mixed cranial nerve that originates in the trigeminal nucleus located in the brain stem. Together with the trigeminal ganglion, motor output, and sensory input, it is known as the trigeminocervical complex. Its motor fibers innervate the masticatory muscles, whereas its three sensory branches—ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3)—play a key role in the nociceptive perception of the front of the face, head, dura mater, regional meningeal vasculature, cheek, cornea, lower face, jaw, and anterior two-thirds of the tongue. The ophthalmic branch (V1) plays a key role in the nociception of orofacial pain, cephalalgias, and neurovascular pathology of migraine [32,45,46]. Sensory stimuli originating in the dural vessels activate the nociceptive trigeminal fibers, which initiate the ascending pathway to the brainstem, hypothalamus, thalamus, and finally the cerebral cortex [34,47].

It should be noted that the innervation of adjacent areas by trigeminal branches (i.e., V1/V2 and V2/V3) presents a certain degree of overlap and accounts for the occasional lack of definition of precise localization of pain that makes the differential diagnosis between sinusitis, odontalgia, and migraine challenging in some patients [48,49,50,51,198]. Guidelines for clinical evaluation and differential diagnosis will be discussed later in this course.

SIGNALING MOLECULES AND GENETIC MUTATIONS

Signaling molecules are the neurochemical messengers used by neurons and glial cells to transfer information among each other [52]. Glial cells play a role beyond myelination and extracellular ionic homeostasis, as they also release proinflammatory mediators that regulate neuronal activity, vascular tone, and intercellular concentrations of ions [39,52,53].

Gap junctions between glial cells and neurons regulate ion transfer and neuronal depolarization in cortical spreading depression. Conflicting results of clinical trials have been noted with regard to using a gap junction blocker (e.g., tonabersat) for migraine prophylaxis. In one trial, tonabersat was shown to be effective, while another showed efficacy only in migraine without aura; another trial showed no proven efficacy [213]. Additional research and clinical studies are required to determine the efficacy of gap junction blockers for the treatment of migraine [196,197,213].

Voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels regulate neuronal excitability and intracellular signaling pathways [52]. Mutations in the genes encoding for these channels cause them to malfunction, leading to a variety of conditions known as channelopathies. Augmented channel function and neuronal hyperexcitability is associated with clinical conditions such as epilepsy and migraine, whereas decreased function is associated with hypoexcitability and paralysis [54,55,56]. Accordingly, channel blockers such as valproate and topiramate used in the management of epilepsy are also effective in migraine prevention [36,56,57].

Additional mechanisms, including an increase in synthesis and release of signaling molecules such as neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin), neuropeptides (e.g., CGRP), vasodilators (e.g., nitric oxide), and pro-inflammatory mediators (e.g., histamine), play a key role in the pathogenesis of migraine. The association between serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and vascular changes is well-established. Increases in synthesis and concentrations of 5-HT in the brain, as well as elevated urinary levels of the 5-HT metabolite 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA), are observed during migraine attacks [36,58,59]. The multiple vascular effects of 5-HT observed in different organs depend on the subtype of the receptors involved. The effectiveness of ergotamine and its derivatives in the treatment of acute migraine results from their vasoconstrictive properties, which are mediated by their binding to the 5-HT_1 receptors abundant in meningeal blood vessels [60,61]. These drugs are agonists at the 5-HT_1 autoreceptors and inhibit presynaptic release of serotonin, causing vasoconstriction. Triptans are selective agonists at the 5-HT1B/1D receptor subtypes. This action triggers vasoconstriction of the cranial circulation, making these medications highly effective in the treatment of acute migraine and further supporting the role of the serotonergic system, and the 5-HT1B/1D receptor in particular, in migraine pathophysiology [36,58,59]. 5-HT1B/1D receptors are also present in high levels in cardiac vessels, thus explaining the potential for adverse cardiac effects (e.g., vasoconstriction of the coronary arteries) with ergotamine derivatives and triptans [60,61]. Although the therapeutic properties of triptans will be discussed in detail later in this course, it is relevant to point out that they result from the combination of three different mechanisms of action: vasoconstriction of meningeal vessels by direct effect on vascular smooth cells; inhibition of the release of vasoactive and proinflammatory peptides by trigeminal neurons; and inhibition of nociceptive transmission in the brainstem [60,62].

High levels of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate are present in the CSF of patients with migraine, and genetic studies support a crucial role played by a hyperactive glutamatergic system in migraine [63]. Furthermore, antagonists of the glutamate NMDA receptor (e.g., memantine) are effective in the prevention of migraine [54,55].

The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of migraine stems is supported by two main points: the role of the dopaminergic system in nausea, vomiting, and blood pressure changes that occur during a migraine attack, and the therapeutic effectiveness of dopamine antagonists (e.g., metoclopramide, prochlorperazine, chlorpromazine) in the treatment of migraine [201,202]. However, these are not antimigraine drugs of choice, and their clinical use remains limited to the management of nausea and vomiting. They are parenterally administered in emergency settings in addition to triptans [46,64].

The activation of nociceptive fibers of the trigeminal ophthalmic (V1) and maxillary (V2) branches elicits the release of neuropeptides such as CGRP and substance P [29,37,65,66]. These peptides trigger mast cell degranulation and the release of histamine and nitric oxide, thus promoting meningeal vasodilation and plasma extravasation. Direct stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion activates the ascending nociceptive pathway, leading to sensitization and decreased pain threshold [29,32,35,37,65,67].

CGRP is a potent vasodilatory neuropeptide that increases blood flow in the meningeal arteries [66]. The fundamental role played by CGRP in migraine is supported by four main lines of evidence. First, CGRP blood levels are elevated during acute migraine pain. Second, infusion of CGRP in patients with migraine causes a migraine-like headache. Third, selective CGRP antagonists lower CGRP levels and are effective in the acute treatment of migraine. And finally, in a double-blind clinical trial a CGRP antagonist (telcagepant) had the same efficacy in migraine resolution as a 5-HT1B/1D agonist (zolmitriptan) [66,68,69]. After success in several clinical trials, three novel CGRP antagonists were approved by the FDA in 2018 for migraine prophylaxis [176,214,225,226].

The association between nitric oxide and migraine is supported by animal studies and clinical evidence that administration of nitric oxide donors (e.g., sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerine) triggers headaches in patients with migraine, whereas nitric oxide synthase inhibitors reverse the condition and are effective in treating acute migraine [70]. However, non-selective nitric oxide synthase inhibitors cause hypertension and potentially other serious adverse effects, such as coronary vasoconstriction, precluding their clinical usefulness. Research is being actively conducted to develop nitric oxide synthase inhibitors selective to the regional vessels implicated in migraine [61,70,210].

Histamine mediates neuroinflammation, causes vasodilation, and triggers headaches with characteristics similar to the ones observed with nitric oxide increases. These effects are reversed by administration of antihistamines that block the H1 receptor (e.g., diphenhydramine, fexofenadine) [61].

In women, low levels of estrogen are correlated with an increase in migraine attacks in the perimenstrual and perimenopausal stages; high estrogen levels and pregnancy are associated with a reduction in the occurrence of migraine attacks [71]. However, the relationship between estrogen levels and migraine is complex and much debated. Research and updated CDC reports indicate that oral contraceptives may be used by women with migraine without aura, but the cardiovascular risks outweigh the benefits of oral contraceptives for women with migraine with aura [211,212]. Considering the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases in women with migraine (particularly migraine with aura) and the increased risk of stroke in women who take combination oral contraceptives, the risk should be carefully evaluated before oral contraceptives or hormone replacement are considered [72,73,74].

Genetic mutations that encode ion channels and pumps have been identified as the cause of familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM), a rare cause of migraine with aura, suggesting that disturbances in ion homeostasis in the brain are responsible for this migraine type [75]. FHM is the first migraine syndrome to be linked to a specific genetic polymorphism in specific loci in chromosomes 1 and 19 that encode for voltage-gated calcium and sodium/potassium channels. Mutations in calcium channels have been identified in FHM type 1 and mutations in the sodium/potassium channels in FHM type 2 [54,56,76]. These findings provide the mechanistic explanation for the therapeutic efficacy of channel blockers such as valproate and topiramate in the prevention of migraine [46,57,77].

Although the role played by genetic mutations in non-familial forms of migraine is unclear, half of patients with migraine have a first-degree relative also suffering from migraine, and in monozygotic twins, there is 50% heritability with a multifactorial basis [78,79,80]. Genetic variants related to the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate and its receptors have also been identified in non-familial migraine [63]. This evidence further supports the therapeutic value of memantine—a glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist—in the treatment of migraine [81,82].

The dopaminergic system has also been implicated in the etiology of migraine, and although results regarding variability of dopamine receptor genes are not conclusive, evidence clearly demonstrates the association between variability of the dopamine hydroxylase and the dopamine transporter genes and the pathogenesis of migraine with aura [83]. These results provide support for the role of antidopaminergic medications in the treatment of migraine with aura [84,85].

5. MIGRAINE DIAGNOSIS

ACUTE MIGRAINE WITH AND WITHOUT AURA

Useful evidence-based clinical guidelines for the diagnosis of migraine have been developed and are summarized in the mnemonic POUND: pulsatile headache; one-day duration (4 to 72 hours); unilateral location; nausea or vomiting; and disabling intensity [87,88].

Acute or episodic migraine with aura occurs in 25% to 30% of migraines. Aura is a combination of focal neurologic symptoms that precede or accompany an attack, progress for 5 to 20 minutes and last less than 60 minutes. Auras are the clinical manifestations of focal cortical spreading depression originated in the occipital cortex and moving at a rate of 2–3 mm/minute [32,38,39]. Visual auras such as scotomas ("blind spots" in the visual field), phosphenes (scintillations or flashing lights), and teichopsia (zigzag lines) are the most common and frequently affect half the visual field [15,64]. Neurologic auras such as dysarthria, paresis, and paresthesia require thorough clinical evaluation if they last for more than 60 minutes, are accompanied by paralysis or syncope, or occur for the first time in patients 50 years of age or older or in women after initiation of oral contraception [15,89]. In women, migraine with aura is associated with a twofold increased risk for cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and stroke [90].

Typically, the headache is unilateral, although bilateral occurrence is commonly reported. Up to 50% of patients with unilateral pain report that either side can be affected in any particular migraine episode [10,206]. It begins as a dull ache that, within minutes or hours, progressively develops into an intense throbbing pain that worsens with each arterial pulse. The pain is often disabling and interferes with professional, social, and familial commitments [10,17]. The temporal profile of acute or episodic migraine attack includes an initial premonitory phase, a headache phase either with or without aura, and a resolution or recovery phase.

In acute or episodic migraine without aura, up to 80% of patients have premonitory symptoms or prodromes, such as fatigue, irritability, difficulty concentrating, neck stiffness, cold hands, frequent urination, and/or change in appetite, that precede the headache by up to 48 hours. Some patients recognize their prodromes, allowing them to follow an early management approach and effectively abort or minimize subsequent headache [8,15].

In some patients, migraine can be initiated by variety of triggers, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG), excess caffeine, and foods rich in nitrites, sulphates, tyramine, and/or a vasoactive amine present in aged cheese, red wine, and chocolate. Decompression (e.g., high altitudes and scuba diving), dehydration, and fluctuating estrogen levels (e.g., menarche, menstrual period, perimenopause) have also been identified as potential triggers of migraine [64,86]. Knowledge of a patient's triggers can be helpful in preventing a migraine attack.

Gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea and vomiting are reported by 90% and 30% of patients, respectively [64,91]. A variety of other autonomic symptoms accompanying acute migraine attacks include constipation, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nasal stuffiness, facial pallor, and diaphoresis. Neurologic symptoms of sensory hypersensitivity are commonly reported by patients during migraine attacks and are manifested as photophobia, phonophobia, or hyperosmia, and patients tend to seek a dark, quiet location to rest. A variety of psychologic symptoms (e.g., anxiety, depression, drowsiness, irritability, restlessness) are also present in patterns that vary among patients but usually have a predictable pattern in each patient [15,64,91].

Potential complications of migraine include [8]:

- Status migrainosus: Persistent (>72 hours), debilitating migraine with or without aura, often caused by medication overuse

- Persistent aura without infarction: Aura symptoms persisting for one week or more without evidence of infarction on neuroimaging, often bilateral and lasting for months or years

- Migrainous infarction: One or more migraine aura symptom associated with an ischemic brain lesion in the appropriate territory demonstrated by neuroimaging, with onset during course of a typical migraine with aura

- Migraine aura-triggered seizure: A seizure triggered by an attack of migraine with aura

As the cephalalgia resolves, many patients experience a sense of fatigue or exhaustion, irritability, impaired concentration and memory, mood changes, and neck stiffness. This postdrome phase can last from a few hours to up to two days after termination of the headache [8,15,64,91,92].

Additional criteria that are useful to assist in making the correct diagnosis of migraine include:

- Absence of daily headache

- Stable pattern

- History of similar events

- Family history of migraine

- Normal neurologic examination

- Improvement with rest and/or sleep

- Association with menses

Absence of aura and lack of identification of a selective trigger should not eliminate the diagnosis of migraine [6,8,26,64].

Clinical examination of the patient should pay close attention to the presence of alarm signs that play a crucial role in the differential diagnosis between migraine and potentially lethal conditions such as stroke, SAH, and ruptured aneurism. These signs include [15,64]:

- Acute headache with focal neurologic signs or papillary edema

- Acute headache in a patient 50 years of age or older

- Acute onset of a headache described as "the first of this kind" and "the worst ever"

- Intensifying pain of a subacute headache

- Headache associated with systemic illness (e.g., fever, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, skin rash)

- Acute headache in patients with cancer or human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS)

Several imaging studies, including PET and fMRI, have provided insight regarding the involvement of specific brain structures, such as the visual motion processing network, in the pathophysiology of migraine with and without aura [93,203]. Blood oxygen level-dependent MRI studies of the visual cortex have shown that both visual aura and cortical spreading depression correspond to an initial stage of noticeable hyperemia that lasts for three to five minutes, which is followed by one to two hours of oligemia (mild hypoperfusion) [29]. Diffusion tensor MRI showed an increase in thickness of the visual cortex in areas involved in cortical spreading depression and visual aura as well as changes in the superior colliculus and lateral geniculate nucleus, areas also implicated in visual processing [94,95,203]. Morphologic changes in brainstem regions involved in pain modulation (periaqueductal gray) and serotonin-producing neurons (dorsolateral pons) have also been reported [96]. MRI findings of periventricular focal white matter hypertense lesions are four times more frequent in migraine patients than in non-migraine age- and sex-matched controls [97]. However, most patients with migraine with aura do not consistently present with these imaging alterations [37]. These findings should be evaluated on an individual basis, considering the history and pattern of the headache and differential diagnosis of early stages of multiple sclerosis or vascular diseases [97].

Imaging studies have shown that brainstem hyperactivity ipsilaterally correlates to acute migraine, suggesting that lateralization of the pain relates to unilateral brainstem dysfunction and altered transmission in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis. Hyperactivity in the thalamus is associated with allodynia, and activity in cortical regions normally associated with pain processing is observed with imaging during acute migraine [93,204]. These studies are particularly important because they demonstrate that structural and functional changes occur during acute migraine and that changes in vascular function do not represent the primary cause of migraine attacks, further validating the role of cortical spreading depression and the neural etiology of migraine [204].

According to clinical guidelines from the American Academy of Neurology and the U.S. Headache Consortium, neither imaging procedures nor clinical laboratory tests specific for migraine are available. As such, these modalities are not usually warranted for patients with migraine and normal neurologic examination and no recent changes in headache characteristics. Less than 0.2% of patients in this category show clinically significant intracranial lesions on neuroimaging [6,7,93,168,199,200]. The presence of abnormal neurologic examination or changes in headache patterns, such as intensity and temporal profile, are considered "red flags" and prompt MRI imaging is appropriate for these patients (Table 1) [7].

Table 1: SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS THAT SUGGEST A SECONDARY CAUSE OF HEADACHE AND REQUIRE FURTHER CLINICAL AND IMAGING EVALUATIONS

Abnormal neurologic signs

New onset of headache

Abrupt onset

Progressive symptoms

Headache with exertion

Change with head position

Change with Valsalva maneuver (e.g., cough, sneeze, strain)

Symptoms consistent with a trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia diagnosis

Source:[7]

The diagnosis of migraine is based solely on a constellation of signs and symptoms, and a comprehensive medical and neurologic examination is required to exclude secondary headache [15]. Competence of the clinician and effective communication with the patient play a crucial role in the diagnosis of migraine. It has been estimated that 50% of migraine patients remain undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, and only a small number (8% to 10%) of individuals with migraine take migraine-specific medications such as triptans or ergotamines [98,99,100].

Of particular clinical relevance is mounting evidence of an increased comorbidity of migraine and neurologic (e.g., transient ischemic attacks, ischemic stroke, epilepsy), psychiatric (e.g., anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder), cardiovascular (e.g., Raynaud phenomenon, angina, myocardial infarction), and metabolic (e.g., hypercholesterolemia, insulin resistance, obesity) disorders [64,90,101,102,103,104,105,106]. When compared with the rest of the population, patients with migraine with aura have a doubled risk of developing an ischemic stroke [107]. Migraine with aura in women using oral contraceptives has been identified as a risk factor for cardiovascular comorbidity [8]. Particularly relevant are the seven-fold higher odds of stroke in women with migraine with aura who smoke and take oral contraceptives compared with women with probable migraine with visual aura who do not smoke or use oral contraceptives [108].

CHRONIC MIGRAINE

Chronic migraine is defined as headaches that occur on 15 or more days per month for more than three months, which have the features of migraine headache on at least eight days per month [8]. The criterion that a patient must have at least 15 days of headache monthly is not intended to be restrictive, but rather a guideline that patients with a high number of monthly headaches should be included in this group and receive appropriate therapy [26,27].

Chronic migraine has a prevalence of 1% to 2%, and it represents approximately half of all cases of chronic primary headache. It is more frequently observed in women of European heritage, in patients who are obese, and during the fourth decade of life [22,24,109].

In chronic migraine, it is impossible to distinguish the individual episodes, and the characteristics of the headache often change frequently, even within the same day. It is also difficult to keep patients medication-free in order to observe the natural history of the headache. The most common cause of symptoms suggestive of chronic migraine is medication overuse, and in at least 50% of these patients, the condition is reversed after discontinuation of medications. Other patients, however, do not improve after drug discontinuation and their condition should not be diagnosed as medication-overuse headache [8,27]. Patient education regarding the judicious use of medications should begin before rather than after medication-overuse headache is established [15].

In addition to the findings of imaging studies related in the previous section, dysfunction of the descending inhibitory pathways is also observed in chronic migraine, resulting in hypofunction of the descending pain modulatory circuitry [110]. Chronic migraine should respond favorably to pharmacologic treatment with ergots or triptans [27].

LONG-TERM ASSESSMENT OF MIGRAINE PATTERN AND PATIENT STAGING

The pattern of migraine presented by a patient changes over the lifetime, and its assessment determines the combination of clinical management with patient education, pharmacologic treatment, and behavioral interventions [15]. This evaluation takes into account frequency, intensity, and impact of migraine on the patient's life [15]. Based on the findings, patients may be categorized in one of four stages and treated accordingly.

In stage one, patients have one or fewer migraine attacks per month or two or fewer headache days per month and normal function between episodes. Early administration of over-the-counter medication (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, or a combination of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine) and sleep are usually adequate to manage the condition. The patient is fully functional within a few hours and rarely presents for consultation. If severe pain is experienced, patients may seek medical treatment, and in these cases, either triptans or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are usually effective to stop a migraine attack [15].

Patients in stage two present with one to three attacks monthly, with less than five headache days per month. Each event is limited in time, but occasional absenteeism from work or family or social functions may occur. Treatment with triptans, either alone or in combination with NSAIDs (e.g., sumatriptan, naproxen), is usually effective to stop a migraine attack [15]. Patient education should be aimed at limiting the use of analgesics to prevent medication-overuse headache, emphasizing that the use of analgesics should be limited to the early management of individual acute migraines and the need to limit drug administration to no more than twice per week [15].

In stage three, patients present with frequent attacks (four to eight per month with less than 12 headache days per month). Assessment should include the use of acute medications (NSAIDs and triptans) and determination of possible medication overuse. It is important to set strict limits on medication use or opt for discontinuation, with preventive therapy initiated concurrently. The choice among preventive medications should take into account the existence of comorbidities, such as beta-blockers in patients with hypertension and tricyclic antidepressants in patients with depression. However, it is important to remember that the appropriate dosage for prevention of migraine might be below the therapeutic effective for the comorbid condition [15].

Patients in stage four have more than eight attacks per month and more than 15 days of headache per month. These patients should be treated by headache specialists on interdisciplinary teams focused on pain management. Medication overuse should be evaluated in each patient and appropriately managed. The medication should be discontinued, and if necessary, a bridging therapy—such as naratriptan (1 mg twice daily for five days) or naproxen (440 mg twice daily for five days)—can be initiated to prevent or manage rebound headaches from the medication withdrawal. Preventive pharmacotherapy should preferably be initiated after discontinuation of previous medication(s). Management of patients with complex migraine often requires referral and interprofessional collaboration [111].

After migraine is properly diagnosed, the severity of the disease and its impact on quality of life and ability to function should be assessed using the Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS) questionnaire, a simple and reliable tool (Figure 1) [112,113].

Figure 1: THE MIGRAINE DISABILITY ASSESSMENT (MIDAS) QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MIGRAINE PATIENTS

Source: Reprinted with permission from Stewart WF, Lipton RB, Dowson AJ, Sawyer J. Development and testing of the Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS) questionnaire to assess headache-related disability. Neurology. 2001;56(6Suppl1): S20-S28

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Differentiating migraine from other primary or secondary headaches requires a thorough medical history and physical examination and an understanding of the typical characteristics of primary headaches. The initial differential diagnosis of migraine considers three main areas: other primary headaches, secondary headaches, and orofacial pain. Some red-flag signs and symptoms—including focal neurologic signs, papilledema, neck stiffness, an immunocompromised state, sudden onset of the worst headache in the patient's life, personality changes, headache after trauma, and headache that worsens with exercise—suggest serious underlying pathology and require neuroimaging and/or laboratory testing to evaluate the cause of headache.

Other Primary Headaches

Tension-Type Headache

Tension-type headache is the most common primary headache. The pain is dull and non-pulsating, with a mild-to-moderate intensity and a bilateral or a "hatband" distribution. Typically, tension-type headache is not associated with aura, nausea, or vomiting. Mild photo- or phonophobia may infrequently be reported. Palpation of the cervical or pericranial muscles may identify tender spots [6,10,64].

NSAIDs are effective drugs of choice in the treatment of tension-type headache. Ibuprofen (400 mg) and naproxen sodium (550 mg) provide better analgesia than acetaminophen (1,000 mg) and have fewer adverse effects than aspirin (650 mg). However, the choice should take into account cost and individual patient preference. Amitriptyline (10–25 mg at bedtime) is the most effective in the prophylaxis of tension-type headaches [10].

Cluster Headache/Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias

Evidence Based Practice Recommendation

According to the Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement, oxygen inhalation is a highly effective treatment for cluster headaches when delivered at the beginning of an attack with a non-rebreathing facial mask (7–15 L/min). Most patients will obtain relief within 15 minutes.

https://www.icsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/HeadacheRR.pdf

Last Accessed: June 21, 2021

Level of Evidence: Expert Opinion/Consensus Statement

Cluster headache and TACs are severe and uncommon headaches with a shorter duration (15 to 180 minutes) than migraine and occur up to eight times per day [8,10]. Cluster headache is more common in men than in women (at a ratio of 3:1) with age of onset between 20 to 40 years of age [8]. It often occurs at night and wakes patients from their sleep. Typically, cluster headache presents as a unilateral headache located behind the eye and radiating to the territory of the ipsilateral trigeminal nerve. It occurs in clusters followed by periods of complete remission that can last for weeks to months. Aura and gastrointestinal symptoms are not observed, but ipsilateral lacrimation, conjunctival injection, rhinorrhea, and blocked nasal passage are typically present [10,114]. Relevant to the differential diagnosis, patients experiencing a cluster headache do not seek rest during an attack but are noticeably agitated, restless, pacing, rocking, and even aggressive. This is in sharp contrast to patients with migraine, who seek relief by resting in a dark, quiet place and prefer to remain motionless during attacks [6,8,9,46,114]. The standard treatment for cluster headache/TAC is high-flow oxygen (100% O2 at 7–10 L/min for 15 to 30 minutes).

In addition to supplemental oxygen, sumatriptan and zolmitriptan are effective in the acute treatment of episodic cluster headache. Verapamil (240 mg/day) has been the first-line prophylactic therapy and can be used to treat chronic cluster headache; however, the CGRP antagonist galcanezumab-gnlm received FDA-approval in 2019 for cluster headache prophylaxis [176,236]. Further clinical studies are required to compare the effectiveness of these agents. Lithium (800–900 mg/day) is also effective, although it requires closer monitoring for adverse effects (e.g., hypothyroidism). More invasive treatments, including nerve stimulation and surgery, may be helpful in refractory cases [10,46,64,114,115,216].

Thunderclap Headache

Thunderclap headache occurs suddenly, reaches peak intensity in less than one minute, and lasts for at least five minutes and up to 24 hours. Patients often describe thunderclap headache as the "worst headache of their lives." These headaches are often associated with life-threatening vascular intracranial disorders such as SAH, intracerebral hemorrhage, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, ischemic stroke, arterial dissection, and hypertensive encephalopathy [10,116,117]. Primary thunderclap headache should be a diagnosis of last resort, reached only when all organic causes have been demonstrably excluded [8].

Differentiating among thunderclap headache, migraine, and serious secondary headaches requires a comprehensive examination and initial CT scan and CSF analysis, possibly followed by an MRI if these are negative or inconclusive. Primary thunderclap headache responds poorly to analgesics, and the best management is provided by nimodipine (a dihydropyridine calcium channel antagonist) or gabapentin [46,116].

Secondary Headaches

Clinical history and patient examination also play a critical role in differentiating migraine from potentially life-threatening secondary headaches resulting from SAH, cerebral parenchymal hemorrhage, cerebral vein thrombosis, cavernous sinus thrombosis, increased intracranial pressure, meningitis/encephalitis, hypertensive emergency, brain metastases, and HIV/AIDS [46,118,199]. A change in severity, frequency, or characteristics of the headache, the presence of a new progressive headache that persists for days, or headache developing after head trauma or associated with neck stiffness or fever is suggestive of secondary origin. Headache is also reported by 50% of patients diagnosed with either primary or metastatic brain tumor, with characteristics typical of migraine in 9% of patients and of tension-type headache in 77%; in one study, "classic" early morning brain tumor headache occurred in only 17% of patients [119].

Differential diagnosis of secondary headache requires a detailed history and thorough examination. If the situation is unclear, an initial CT scan of the head without contrast and CSF analysis are required, possibly followed by an MRI [46,118,199].

Orofacial Pain

The multifaceted etiology of oral, facial, and head pain is the result not only of various pain mechanisms but also of the complex anatomy of the head and orofacial region. Its diagnosis and management often require a multidisciplinary approach and collaboration [120,121,122].

Approximately 20% of the population experiences orofacial pain more than once every six months [123]. Odontogenic pathology is the most common cause of orofacial pain, followed by nonodontogenic pain (e.g. temporomandibular disorders, neuropathies) and burning mouth syndrome [124,125]. Primary headaches, such as migraine, cluster headache, and tension-type headache, can also present as pain with orofacial location. The most prevalent etiology of nonodontogenic orofacial pain is musculoskeletal pathology (e.g., temporomandibular disorders), followed by episodic or chronic neuropathies (e.g., post-traumatic, trigeminal, post-herpetic) and oral cancer [121,126]. Sinusitis may also cause orofacial pain and headache, and a careful assessment of the patient is required to establish a differential diagnosis [8,50,124,127].

Odontogenic Pain

Odontogenic pain is caused by odontogenic pathology, such as injury or inflammation/infection of the dental pulp or periodontal tissues, and accounts for more than 50% of all orofacial pain [128]. Clinical and radiographic examination should be corroborated by at least one other test aimed at differentiating between odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain, including percussion, palpation, biting, or thermal. If radiographic and clinical examination are both negative, then two of these other tests must be positive in order to correctly establish the diagnosis and location of the pain [128].

Dentin hypersensitivity presents as a transient sharp pain in response to thermal, chemical, or tactile stimulation. Dental caries present as painful response to any stimulation and can be easily confirmed by clinical and radiographic examination.

Pulpitis is an inflammation of the dental pulp caused either by caries or fracture. Reversible pulpitis is a mild inflammation and presents as localized, sharp, and intermittent pain elicited by thermal changes, particularly cold drinks. Irreversible pulpitis results from chronic inflammation and infection associated with pulpar necrosis, which can be either associated with throbbing pain with no response to thermal stimuli or with poorly localized, dull, and persistent pain [128,129]. A localized periapical abscess is a common complication of pulpitis, and symptoms include tenderness on tapping and lymphadenopathy. This condition requires dental referral for drainage and subsequent reconstruction or extraction; antibiotics are usually not recommended. If the infection has spread to adjacent teeth or surrounding tissues, causing cellulitis, or if the clinical situation does not allow for immediate dental surgical treatment, appropriate antimicrobial therapy with broad-spectrum antibiotics, specifically amoxicillin with clavulanate, should be initiated before referral. Clindamycin is a recommended alternative, particularly in patients with an allergy to penicillins [128,129,130]. It is important to remember that antibiotics are not substitutes to curative dental treatment. In fact, very seldom are antibiotics an appropriate substitute for removal of the source of the infection (i.e., extraction, endodontic treatment, incision and drainage, periodontal scaling and root planing) [130].

Periodontalgia resulting from gingivitis or periodontal abscess is not as deep-seated, intense, and throbbing as endodontic pain. This pain is associated with gingival inflammation, localized bleeding, and tooth mobility and is usually more generalized than endodontic pain. Antibiotic therapy is an option, and referral to periodontal treatment is required [128].

Nonodontogenic Tooth Pain

Nonodontogenic tooth pain is defined as pain that presents as tooth pain but without dental pathology. Although it often coexists with true tooth pathology, its true nature is revealed when the dental pain is treated. It can present as a deep, dull ache with occasional lancinating pain in the ear, temple, or face. The most prevalent etiology of nonodontogenic tooth pain is muscular. These presentations include myospasm, myalgia, and myofascial pain syndrome, with pain elicited by the stimulation of trigger points in the muscles involved. For example, stimulation of the anterior digastric muscle trigger points can cause referred pain in the lower incisors, whereas stimulation of the anterior or posterior temporal muscle trigger points causes pain in the maxillary anterior or posterior teeth, respectively [131]. Local injection of neuromuscular blocker botulinum toxin (e.g., Botox, Dysport, Xeomin) is effective treatment.

Atypical odontalgia, also known as neuropathic tooth pain, neurovascular odontalgia, oral neuropathic pain, or atypical facial pain, is a nonodontogenic pain of neuropathic origin. Classically, atypical odontalgia presents as throbbing, persistent pain in the teeth or alveolar process occurring over a prolonged period of time without any pathologic, clinical, or radiologic findings [132]. Onset can coincide with dental treatment, including denervation or dental extraction, a condition known as phantom tooth pain [133]. Most patients are women in their mid-40s, and they are often misdiagnosed and submitted to repeated endodontic therapy and dental extractions that fail to relieve their pain [134]. Diagnosis and management are challenging, but tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline or imipramine are the treatment of choice. Gabapentin, baclofen, topical anesthetics, and opioids are possible alternatives [135].

Temporomandibular Disorders

Temporomandibular disorders have a lifetime prevalence of 75% and account for approximately 5% of orofacial pain that requires therapeutic management [124,125]. These disorders are associated with usually unilateral pain with temporal, periorbital, or frontal location. The pain is persistent and dull, with well-localized trigger points in the muscle, fascia, or tendons. Temporomandibular pain of myogenous origin includes jaw and facial pain arising from masticatory muscles, whereas pain of arthrogenous origin is associated with joint noise, incoordination of the disk-condyle relationship either with or without locking, and limited range of motion.

Typically, temporomandibular pain is triggered or aggravated by clinical examination with palpation, passive movement, and active movement (e.g., yawning, chewing, talking) and intensified when muscle is contracted against fixed resistance [124,136,137]. The role of temporomandibular disorder as a cause of chronic headaches and facial pain is often overlooked, and patients may be misdiagnosed as suffering from daily migraines or chronic sinusitis or rhinitis [124,127].

Imaging with MRI is indicated to study soft tissues and assess disk position. In the past, panoramic and tomographic studies were considered the most appropriate to evaluate bone, although cone-beam CT is now the first choice [124]. Referral to an expert in temporomandibular pain is advised to establish the treatment plan, which will be determined by the degree of impairment and complexity of the disorder. Interventions range from patient education (e.g., avoid chewy foods and chewing gum) and physical therapy (e.g., apply heat or ice, perform jaw-stretching exercises) to pharmacotherapy with NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, botulinum toxin, sedatives, corticosteroids (e.g., methylprednisolone, triamcinolone), or topical analgesics (e.g., capsaicin, lidocaine in transdermal patch). Advanced and complex cases require surgery (e.g., arthrocentesis, arthrotomy, joint replacement) [121,124].

Sinusitis and Rhinosinusitis

Sinusitis and rhinosinusitis are potential causes of facial pain and headache. The floor of the maxillary sinus is in close proximity to the roots of the maxillary teeth, specifically the second premolar and the first premolar. It might extend as far anteriorly as the canine and posteriorly as far as the third molar [207]. Up to 11% of patients with maxillary sinusitis report toothache, and the involved maxillary teeth may be tender to percussion and hypersensitive to cold stimuli, with tenderness, edema, and erythema of the oral mucosa adjacent to the compromised sinus. Periapical radiographs may also illustrate widening of the periodontal ligament. Together, this constellation of signs and symptoms requires a thorough history and examination [207,208,209].

The frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid sinuses are each contiguous with the intracranial vault, and congestion or inflammation in any of these sinuses frequently leads to headache, the character and location of which is determined by the specific sinus involved. The floor of the frontal sinus forms a portion of the roof of the orbit. Frontal sinusitis causes pain (headache) above the eye in the frontal region of the skull, accompanied by local tenderness and occasionally slight edema of the eyelid. This headache often occurs mid-morning and is aggravated by bending forward. The ethmoid air cells are variable in number and occupy the boney area between the nasal cavity and the medial wall of the orbit. Headache associated with anterior ethmoid sinusitis is referred to the parietal area of the head, while posterior ethmoiditis causes headache in the mastoid or occipital regions. The sphenoid sinus is located behind the orbit, and the roof of this sinus forms the pituitary fossa at the base of the brain. Sphenoid sinusitis produces a deep, boring retro-orbital pain and coronal headache that can become severe and unremitting.

The cardinal clinical features of sinusitis are nasal congestion/obstruction, purulent nasal discharge, and pain (regional facial pain and/or headache). Commonly, the discomfort of sinus congestion becomes worse when the patient bends over or lies down. Sinusitis may be unilateral or bilateral and more than one anatomic sinus is often affected (e.g., fronto-maxillary or fronto-ethmoid sinusitis). Regional pain may be accompanied by the sensation of periorbital and frontal pressure, and there may be localized tenderness, mild erythema, or edema adjacent to the involved sinus. Fever is not a prominent feature and is more common in children than in adults. Complaints of increased post-nasal drainage and cough, particularly at night, are common. The diagnosis can usually be made by careful clinical assessment combined with sinus transillumination and, perhaps, plain radiographs of the face ("sinus views"). Head neuroimaging is reserved for persistent, recurrent, or complicated cases.

Sinusitis usually develops as a complication of viral upper respiratory infection or nasal allergy; however, persistent or progressive symptoms are often the result of secondary bacterial infection. The treatment regimen is designed to promote drainage, relieve pain, and treat bacterial infection. A systemic and/or topical decongestant (e.g., phenylephrine, oxymetazoline) should be administered, perhaps combined with nasal corticosteroid (e.g., fluticasone, mometasone) for patients if nasal allergy is prominent. Amoxacillin, either alone or in combination with clavulanate, is the antibiotic of choice for most cases [138,139].

Patients suffering from daily migraines may be misdiagnosed with chronic sinusitis or rhinitis and repeatedly and unsuccessfully treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics [124,127]. A systematic review found that if thorough otolaryngologic and neurologic examinations are performed, the majority of patients presenting with sinus headache in the absence of significant acute inflammatory findings are diagnosed with migraine. The researchers recommend that the appropriate treatment for these patients is migraine-specific medication [140].

Giant Cell Arteritis

Giant cell arteritis should be considered as part of the differential diagnosis of orofacial pain in patients 50 years of age and older [141]. Arteritis of the temporal artery presents as sudden, severe, and pulsating temporal pain that worsens with cold temperatures. Patients also often display tenderness to palpation, jaw claudication with limited range of motion, and allodynia of the scalp. It is commonly associated with signs of systemic inflammation (e.g., fever, fatigue, malaise, anorexia, sweating). The constellation of signs associated with the throbbing temporal pain in giant cell arteritis allows for a reliable differential diagnosis with migraine. Imaging tests may appear normal, but laboratory tests will show elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein. Giant cell arteritis is considered a medical emergency because partial or total obstruction of the blood vessel may result in transient ischemic attacks, stroke, or permanent loss of vision. Prompt treatment with prednisone (starting at 10–20 mg and increasing up to 60 mg/day), either alone or in conjunction with aspirin (81 mg/day), is very effective in most cases. ESR values can be used to monitor progression and response to therapy [142,143,144].

Burning Mouth Syndrome

Burning mouth syndrome, also referred to as glossodynia, is a condition of unclear (possibly neuropathic) etiology, and diagnosis is established when other known causes (e.g., xerostomia, candidiasis, diabetes mellitus, food sensitivity, deficiencies in vitamin B12 or iron) have been excluded. As the diagnosis is made by exclusion of other known conditions, a detailed medical history and pain history are required [145]. The International Headache Society defines burning mouth syndrome as "a burning sensation for which no dental or medical cause can be found" [6]. It is most commonly observed in postmenopausal women and is usually confined to the tongue. It may be associated with xerostomia and loss of taste (ageusia) [146,147]. Burning mouth syndrome may develop as an adverse effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, with the condition subsiding after drug discontinuation [145]. If pharmacotherapy is required, clonazepam and gabapentin are the most commonly prescribed drugs for this condition [147].

6. MIGRAINE TREATMENT

NONPHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES

Nonpharmacologic alternatives to migraine treatment include a variety of lifestyle changes and complementary and alternative therapies. Lifestyle changes play an important role in the prevention of acute as well as chronic migraine [15,27]. These changes include a structured lifestyle, healthy diet, consistent hydration, regular exercise, regular sleep patterns, quitting smoking, avoidance of specific headache triggers (e.g., excess caffeine, alcohol, chocolate), and avoidance and management of stress. Increased general fitness and moderate physical activity, such as 30-minute walks three to five times per week, are recommended, although high-intensity exercise and irregular patterns of exercise may trigger headache [148].

Complementary and alternative therapies, such as relaxation techniques, biofeedback, cognitive-behavioral therapy, massage, acupuncture, botulinum toxin, coenzyme Q10, vitamin B12 or B2 supplementation, and herbal medications such as feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) and butterbur (Petasites hybridus), have also been evaluated in migraine prophylaxis, with varying levels of success [149,150,151,152,153]. Patient education is another important tool in migraine management, and useful information for migraineurs is available online (Resources).

CLINICAL MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE MIGRAINE ATTACKS

The management of acute migraine attacks includes pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic approaches. The patient will usually first cope with symptoms by lying down in a dark and quiet location. However, medication is often necessary. The appropriate drug choice takes into account the severity of the attack and previous individual response to specific medications. An estimated 50% to 70% of mild and moderate migraine attacks can be managed with oral medications; severe events require parenteral treatment. As a general rule, medications used to alleviate the pain of a migraine attack should be taken early after onset, when the headache is still mild.

The U.S. Headache Consortium has identified several goals for the treatment of acute attacks [154,217]:

- Treat the attacks rapidly and consistently and eliminate recurrence of the attack

- Restore the patient's ability to function

- Minimize the use of backup and rescue medications

- Optimize self-care and reduce subsequent use of resources

- Institute cost-effective approaches for overall management

- Minimize or avoid adverse events

A comparison of the effectiveness of various abortive medications is limited due to the paucity of clinical trials directly comparing different drug classes. However, five general guidelines have been developed [154,217]:

- Educate patients with migraine about their condition and its treatment and encourage them to participate in their own management.

- Use migraine-specific agents in patients with more severe migraine and in those whose headaches respond poorly to NSAIDs or combination analgesics such as aspirin plus acetaminophen plus caffeine.

- Select a non-oral route of administration for patients whose migraines are characterized by nausea or vomiting early in the course of an attack.

- Consider use of a self-administered rescue medication for patients with severe migraines that fail to respond well to other treatments.

- Guard against medication-overuse headache.

Face-to-face education with a healthcare professional has been found to increase medication efficacy by 11% compared with written patient instructions without altering the placebo response [15].

Lifestyle modifications, including identification and avoidance of possible triggers and adherence to a structured sleep schedule, are an effective and often neglected tool in the prevention and management of migraine [148,155]. The role of exercise is supported by a three-month randomized, controlled trial that showed exercising for 40 minutes three times per week provided benefits comparable to relaxation according to a recorded program or daily topiramate use titrated to the individual's highest tolerable dose (maximum: 200 mg/day) [156].

Pharmacotherapy

The primary endpoint in the acute treatment of migraine is to optimize the number of patients who are pain-free at two hours after administration of medication, and prompt initiation of treatment as soon as possible after first symptoms provides the maximum benefit [84,87,157,158,159]. Medications used in the treatment of acute migraine attacks are either non-specific analgesics, such as NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and opioids, or migraine-specific drugs, such as agonists at the serotonin receptor 5-HT1B/1D (ergots and triptans) and dopamine antagonists.

It should be noted that opioids are not recommended in the treatment of acute migraine, except when administered intravenously in the emergency department [160]. Opioid treatment is associated with a high recurrence rate of migraine headache and an inherent potential for misuse, abuse, and dependence. It is recommended that opioids may only be considered for short-term use in cases of intractable, severe migraines or end-of-life care [161].

Clinical practice guidelines developed by the Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement recommend a stepwise escalation of medical management of migraine headaches. Treatment of severe migraine headache in emergency settings should start with triptans and NSAIDs, progressing to dihydroergotamine and ultimately neuroleptics. Opioids and dexamethasone may be added as adjuncts in refractory cases [162,217].

Non-Specific Medications

The heterogeneous group of non-specific migraine medications consists of a variety of drugs that do not target the 5-HT1B/1D serotonin receptor. This includes anti-inflammatory medications and/or analgesics (e.g., NSAIDs, opioids, corticosteroids), antidopaminergics, (e.g., metoclopramide, chlorpromazine, haloperidol), antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine, dimenhydrinate, hydroxyzine), steroids (e.g., dexamethasone, prednisone), anticonvulsants (e.g., valproate), anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine, bupivacaine, nitrous oxide, propofol), and magnesium sulphate.

NSAIDs inhibit the neuroinflammatory cascade that leads to release of vasoactive mediators that cause vasodilation. They also inhibit the release of prostaglandins that activate nociceptive neurons in the trigeminal nucleus [158]. More than 50% of patients use non-prescription NSAIDs effectively to treat acute migraine, and those who present with complaint of migraine have usually tried these medications unsuccessfully [4,87,163]. NSAIDs evaluated for the treatment of acute migraine include a combination of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine (Excedrin Migraine, two tablets every six hours, for a maximum of 48 hours), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, generic, 400 mg every three to four hours), and naproxen (Aleve, generic, 200–550 mg twice per day). When administered early in a migraine attack, NSAIDs are effective, and they are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of mild-to-moderate attacks [4,46,87,163]. Ketorolac (30 mg IV or 60 mg IM) has also been shown to be effective and is recommended for acute treatment in emergency settings [85,164,165,218].

As discussed, opioids (e.g., morphine, fentanyl, buprenorphine, meperidine, nalbuphine, tramadol) are not currently recommended in the treatment of acute migraine, except when administered intravenously in the emergency department, when necessary for end-of-life care, and when effective analgesia was not achieved and patients are not able to tolerate specific medications due to pre-existing comorbidity (e.g., cardiovascular disease) [85,160,161,164,166]. In these cases, intractable migraine pain may be managed with an opioid (not meperidine) or dexamethasone. However, if at all possible, clinicians should avoid opioids. The brief pain-relief window, induction of inflammatory neurochemical release, and vasodilatation are counterproductive to treatment issues and migraine pathophysiology. Meperidine is not recommended because its neurotoxic metabolite (normeperidine) may promote seizures [162].

Antidopaminergic drugs may be categorized as either antiemetics (e.g., metoclopramide) or neuroleptics (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, droperidol). Several antiemetics, including metoclopramide, are effective in the management of nausea in acute migraine. Metoclopramide blocks D2 dopamine and 5-HT_3 serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone and accelerates gastric emptying. Its antidopaminergic properties also offer additional antimigraine effects [87]. Metoclopramide (Reglan) 10–20 mg IV is used in emergency settings, and its efficacy is supported by an exhaustive review of the literature published in 2015 [164,218]. Granisetron (Granisol), a selective 5-HT_3 antagonist, has also been used in the emergency settings, although studies are limited and show a greater risk of adverse effects [84,164]. One study showed that granisetron is more beneficial than metoclopramide, because it also controls migraine-related emesis [219]. However, more studies are required to determine if the benefits outweigh the risks of granisetron.

The butyrophenones haloperidol (Haldol, generic, 5 mg in 500 mL IV solution) and droperidol (Inapsine, generic, 0.1–2.5 mg IV) are effective in 80% and 54% of the patients, respectively [84]. Common side effects include sedation and akathisia, and these effects have resulted in almost 20% of patients being unwilling to be treated with haloperidol again [167]. The neurologic side effects of butyrophenones and their cardiovascular risks (e.g., QT prolongation, arrhythmias) outweigh their benefits, and their use in the treatment of acute migraine is generally not recommended [164,218].

The phenothiazine neuroleptics, prochlorperazine (10 mg IV) and chlorpromazine (12.5–25 mg IV), have been found to provide pain relief to up to 90% and 70% of patients, respectively [84,164]. Side effects are less common with prochlorperazine than with chlorpromazine, but both agents are recommended in the treatment of acute migraine in emergency settings [84,164].

Antihistamine drugs (e.g., diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine) have been evaluated in combination with other medications for the treatment of acute migraine attack, with variable outcomes [84]. One trial showed benefits with diphenhydramine 12.5 mg IV plus prochlorperazine 10 mg IV, when compared with sumatriptan 6 mg subcutaneous [169]. However, another trial found that there was no improvement to migraine when diphenhydramine 50 mg IV was added in conjunction with metoclopramide 10 mg IV [220]. More high-quality data are required to determine the efficacy of diphenhydramine administered in combination with other drugs for the treatment of migraine.

The anticonvulsant valproate (900–1,200 mg IV) has been evaluated for intractable migraine attack in emergency settings, with a reduction in pain within 50 to 60 minutes in 75% of patients [170]. However, its use as acute therapy is not recommended due to a lack of clear evidence of a favorable risk-benefit profile [164].

In patients with severe acute migraine resistant to treatment, anesthetics may be considered. Topical 4% lidocaine (0.5 mL) may be administered either by the physician or the patient into the nostril of the affected side over 30 seconds, with patient in the supine position [84,87,171]. Intravenous lidocaine and propofol are not recommended, as serious side effects outweigh possible benefits [164].

Steroids—specifically dexamethasone (IV 6–24 mg) or prednisone (40 mg/day)—are used as adjuncts to the standard emergent treatment of migraine [172]. These agents act to suppress inflammation underlying migraine. In one study, combined dexamethasone (6 mg IV) plus metoclopramide (5–10 mg IV) provided migraine pain relief at 30 minutes in approximately 80% of patients, an outcome similar to dihydroergotamine (0.75–1 mg IV) plus metoclopramide (5–10 mg IV) [172]. Steroids should be used cautiously in diabetic patients. Repeated administration increases the risk of osteoporosis and well-known endocrine disorders [87,158].

Magnesium has also been used in the treatment of acute migraine, and interestingly, up to 50% of patients have lowered levels of magnesium in the plasma during an acute migraine attack [157,173]. Magnesium has an effect on a variety of neurotransmitters and receptors underlying acute migraine, including serotonin receptors, NMDA receptors, nitric oxide, and substance P [157,173]. Research has shown that magnesium sulphate (1 g IV) is effective in 80% of patients 15 minutes postinfusion in emergency settings [157,174]. The most common adverse effect is facial flushing. Considering that only a few small clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of magnesium, the established guidelines do not recommend its use in the treatment of acute migraine [164,166].

Migraine-Specific Medications

Moderate and severe acute migraines are more effectively treated with migraine-specific medications, particularly ergots and triptans. Interestingly, these medications do not have analgesic properties; rather their clinical effectiveness results from their targeting of the pathophysiologic mechanism underlying migraine. Migraine-specific medications are agonists at the serotonin 5-HT1B/1D autoreceptor, preventing release of serotonin from the presynaptic terminals and causing vasoconstriction of the meningeal blood vessels. These drugs also target the serotonin autoreceptors on terminals of the trigeminal nerve, which results in the inhibition of the release of proinflammatory vasoactive peptides and inhibition of nociceptive transmission in the brainstem [60,62,98,175].

The ergot alkaloids ergotamine and dihydroergotamine are non-selective agonists at the 5-HT_1 serotonin receptor, with a lower affinity for alpha-adrenergic and dopaminergic receptors. On the other hand, triptans are considered to be highly selective agonists at the 5-HT1B/1D serotonin receptor subtype, with lower affinity for binding to other serotonin receptors.

Ergotamine is available in oral formulation (Ergomar) or in combination with caffeine for either oral (Cafergot) or rectal (Migergot) administration. Dihydroergotamine is available for nasal administration (Migranal, generic) or for IV and subcutaneous injection (DHE, generic). The use of ergots has declined since the introduction of triptans, although clinical studies have demonstrated that both drug groups have a similar efficacy in the treatment of acute migraine [161]. Adverse effects of ergots include nausea and vomiting, tingling of the extremities, muscle cramps, and chest discomfort [161]. As discussed, 5-HT1B/1D receptors are also expressed in high levels in the coronary arteries, resulting in the increased potential for adverse cardiac effects (i.e., coronary vasoconstriction) associated with ergotamine derivatives and triptans [161]. Ergots are contraindicated in patients with heart conditions or hypertension, and any chest or cardiac symptoms should be appropriately evaluated [60,61,161,176]. Dihydroergotamine is oxytocic and should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding [175,176]. Dihydroergotamine causes fewer adverse effects than ergotamine, but the use of any ergot alkaloids should be avoided within 24 hours of administration of triptans and serotonergic agonists, due to risk of severe vasoconstriction, and within two weeks of discontinuing monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Ergots are contraindicated with potent inhibitors of CYP3A4, such as azole antifungals, macrolide antibiotics, and protease inhibitors [157,176].

Triptans are considered the first-line therapy for the acute treatment of migraine in patients resistant to NSAIDs. As noted, triptans have a higher selectivity than ergots for the 5-HT1B/1D receptors and very low or no affinity for adrenergic or dopaminergic receptors. Their clinical efficacy results from their vasoconstrictive properties, which are mediated by their binding to the 5-HT1 receptors abundant in meningeal blood vessels [60,61,175]. As of 2021, seven triptans are available in the United States: naratriptan (Amerge), rizatriptan (Maxalt), eletriptan (Relpax), sumatriptan (Imitrex), zolmitriptan (Zomig), almotriptan (Axert), and frovatriptan (Frova). The pharmacodynamic properties and efficacy of all triptans are similar, and their clinical variability relates to the route of administration and individual patient response [157,161,176]. Failure or intolerance to one triptan warrants the trial of an alternative agent [157,161]. It is advisable to switch from one oral triptan to another if three migraine attacks have been treated without success [229]. In one study, sumatriptan 50 mg was similar to ibuprofen 400 mg and to effervescent aspirin 1,000 mg in reducing moderate-to-severe migraine pain, although sumatriptan was superior to the other medications at two hours after administration [177]. A combination of sumatriptan 85 mg and naproxen 500 mg (Trexima) has been shown to provide better pain relief than either drug alone [87]. However, prediction of a patient's response to a particular medication is difficult, and complete pain relief within two hours is only achieved in 45% to 77% of patients taking triptans [87,178].

Potential side effects of triptans include paresthesias, dizziness, flushing, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, local bleeding, bruising at the site of the injection, and nasal discomfort and dysgeusia for intranasally administered drugs [157,161,176]. Triptans are contraindicated in patients with a history of myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accident, Prinzmetal angina, uncontrolled hypertension, and patients treated with MAO inhibitors. Patients being treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors should avoid triptans due to the increased risk of life-threatening serotonin syndrome [87,98]. In 2014, analysis of the 16-year Sumatriptan, Naratriptan, and Treximet Pregnancy Registry found that the risk of major birth defects following in utero exposure to these drugs during the first trimester was not increased when compared with studies of birth defects among migraineurs with and without other medication exposure during pregnancy [179]. However, the authors caution that these findings should not be extrapolated to other medications in the triptan class, and triptans are usually avoided during pregnancy [179]. Additionally, a 2017 study supported the position that triptans have no effect on pregnancy outcome, although it was noted that sumatriptan is the best-studied triptan and, therefore, likely the safest choice [220].

In 2019, lasmiditan, a ditan, was approved for the treatment of migraine [176]. Lasmiditan is similar to a triptan but is a high-affinity, highly selective 5-HT1F receptor agonist. The selective targeting of the 5-HT1F receptor is hypothesized to decrease stimulation of the trigeminal system and treat migraine pain without causing vasoconstriction. In a phase 3 study, patients reporting being free of headache after two hours with lasmiditan 200 mg (32.2%) or 100 mg (28.2%) compared with placebo (15.3%). Patients who received lasmiditan were also significantly more likely to report alleviation of their most bothersome symptom compared with placebo [235]. Adverse events were mostly mild or moderate in intensity.

PREVENTIVE TREATMENT

In some patients, the frequency, severity, and unresponsiveness of migraine attacks to abortive medications require the initiation of preventive therapy. In patients with repeated acute attacks, the overuse of medications—opioids and barbiturates in particular—may lead to migraine chronification [8,180].

Preventive pharmacotherapy is used in conjunction with effective nonpharmacologic approaches as part of a comprehensive plan including avoidance of migraine triggers, implementation of lifestyle changes, stress management techniques, and a reduction in the use of analgesics or acute migraine medications [181]. Patients with migraine should be considered for preventive treatment in any of the following situations [182,183,230]:

- Use abortive medications at least two times per week with limited effectiveness

- Frequent attacks (i.e., four or more per month)

- Attacks significantly interfere with daily routines despite abortive treatment

- Have adverse effects with abortive treatment

- Have migraine attacks with serious and unusual symptoms

- Have an established pattern of medication overuse

Preventive medications improve patients' quality of life and health outcomes and reduce disability and healthcare costs [184,185]. The decision to opt for preventive pharmacotherapy should be discussed with the patient and should take into consideration the variability in patient response and the possibility of significant side effects [185].

Novel Preventive Treatment of Migraine

In 2018, the first medications in a novel class of drugs received FDA-approval for the prevention of migraine [176,214,225,226]. As previously noted, CGRP is a potent vasodilatory neuropeptide that increases blood flow in the meningeal arteries [66]. It has long been postulated that one cause of episodic migraine is a combination of neuronal hyperactivity and a local process of neurogenic inflammation triggered by an increase in pro-inflammatory mediators such as CGRP, neurokinin, and substance P [29,31]. Following the development of a monoclonal antibody that blocks the activity of the CGRP peptide, a significant reduction in days with migraine was shown in clinical trials with CGRP antagonists [214,221,222,223].

The first of three clinical trials prior to FDA-approval showed that six months of treatment with erenumab-aaoe resulted in one to two fewer monthly migraine days on average than those on placebo among 955 patients. A second study of 577 patients with episodic migraine showed one fewer migraine day over the course of three months. A third study of 677 patients with chronic migraine showed 2.5 fewer monthly migraine days after three months of treatment [214,221]. Erenumab-aaoe is recommended for those who do not respond to conventional treatment.

Erenumab-aaoe is initially administered at a dose of 70 mg once-monthly by subcutaneous self-injection, but this can be increased to a maximum of 140 mg once-monthly in divided doses [176]. There are no contraindications to erenumab-aaoe, and known side effects are limited to injection site reactions (less than 6%) and constipation (3%) [176]. Pregnancy and breastfeeding considerations are unknown; however, adverse events were not seen in animal reproduction studies [176].

The results of multiple phase II and phase III clinical trials resulted in additional CGRP antagonists receiving FDA approval in 2018, 2019, and 2020 [222,227]. Like erenumad, fremanezumab-vfrm, galcanezumab, ubregepant, and eptinezumab-jjmr are administered subcutaneously for prevention of migraine in adults [225,226]. Fremanezumab-vfrm is administered either as a 225-mg monthly dose or 675 mg every three months [225]. The initial dose of galcanezumab is 240 mg, followed by 120-mg monthly doses [226]. Ubregepant is taken orally at a dose of 50–100 mg (maximum in 24 hours: 200 mg) [227]. The initial dose of eptinezumab-jjmr is 100 mg every three months, but it may be titrated up to a maximum of 300 mg every three months.

Conventional Preventive Treatment of Migraine

The precise mechanism of action of drugs used for the conventional prophylactic treatment of migraine is unclear. It has been postulated that these medications prevent the underlying processes that set a migraine attack into motion and raise the threshold for migraine headache.

Initially, treatment should begin with the lowest possible dose, and a trial of at least two medications at the appropriate dosage is typically required before effectiveness can be assessed. If required, the dose should be slowly titrated up until benefits or unacceptable adverse reactions are observed. When possible, long-acting formulations should be used in order improve patient compliance. In addition, selecting medication that may also treat co-existing conditions, such as hypertension or depression, can improve adherence to the treatment plan [186]. One challenging scenario is presented by migraineurs who become less responsive (i.e., tolerant) to preventive migraine medications. This greatly impacts quality of life, and the establishment of an effective treatment plan for these patients requires an understanding of the mechanisms underlying tolerance to migraine therapy [181].

Although preventive treatments do not completely prevent the occurrence of migraines, they do reduce the frequency by at least 50% [185,187]. Evidence-based guidelines regarding drug effectiveness for the prevention of episodic migraine have haven prepared by the American Headache Society and the American Academy of Neurology (AHS/AAN) (Table 2) [74,186,230]. These guidelines categorize the available prophylactic medications according to the level of available evidence. The following oral treatments have established efficacy and should be offered for prevention of migraine: antiepileptic drugs (e.g., divalproex sodium, valproate sodium, topiramate), beta-blockers (e.g., metoprolol, propranolol, timolol), and frovatriptan (for short-term preventive treatment of menstrual migraine). An exception to the use of valproate sodium and topiramate is that, due to risk of birth defects, it should not be prescribed to women of childbearing potential who are not using a reliable method of contraception [230]. Evidence indicates the following treatment options are probably effective and should be considered for prevention: antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, venlafaxine), beta-blockers (e.g., atenolol, nadolol), and angiotensin receptor blockers (e.g., cardisartan) (230).

Table 2: MEDICATIONS USED FOR THE PREVENTION OF EPISODIC MIGRAINE

Drug Class

Medications and Dose Ranges

Level A: Established as effective, should be offered to patients requiring migraine prophylaxis

Anticonvulsants

Divalproex and sodium valproatea (400–1,000 mg/day)

Topiramatea (25–200 mg/day)

Antihypertensives, beta blockers

Propranolola (120–240 mg/day)

Timolola (10–15 mg twice daily)

Metoprolol (47.5–200 mg/day)

Other

Butterbur (Petasites hybridus) (50–75 mg twice daily)

Level B: Probably effective, should be considered for patients requiring migraine prophylaxis

Tricyclic antidepressants

Amitriptyline (25–150 mg/day)

Serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Extended-release venlafaxine (150 mg /day)

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Fenoprofen (200–600 mg three times daily)

Ibuprofen (200 mg twice daily)

Ketoprofen (50 mg three times daily)

Naproxen (500–1,100 mg/day)

Naproxen sodium (550 mg twice daily)

Antihypertensive, beta blockers

Atenolol (100 mg/day)

Other

Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) (50–300 mg twice daily or 2.08–18.75 mg three times daily for MIG-99)

Magnesium (600 mg/day trimagnesium dicitrate)

Riboflavin (400 mg/day)

Histamine (1–10 ng subcutaneously, twice per week)

Level C: Possibly effective, may be considered for patients requiring migraine prophylaxis

Antihypertensive, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)

Candesartan (16 mg/day)

Antihypertensive, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors

Lisinopril (10–20 mg/day)

Anticonvulsants

Carbamazepine (600 mg/day)

Antihypertensive, alpha-2 agonists

Clonidine (0.75–0.15 mg/day; patch formulations also studied)

Guanfacine (0.5–1 mg/day)

Antihypertensive, beta blocker partial agonists

Pindolol 10 (mg/day)

Antihypertensive, selective beta-1 blockers

Nebivolol (5 mg/day)

NSAIDs

Flurbiprofen (200 mg/day)

Mefenamic acid (500 mg three times daily)

Antihistamine, H1 antagonists

Cyproheptadine (4 mg/day)

Other

Coenzyme Q10 (100 mg three times daily)

aApproved by the FDA for prophylactic treatment of migraine.

Source:[186,205]

Evidence Based Practice Recommendation

The Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement asserts that migraines occurring in association with menses and not responsive to standard cyclic prophylaxis may respond to hormonal prophylaxis with use of estradiol patches, creams, or estrogen-containing contraceptives.

https://www.icsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/HeadacheRR.pdf

Last Accessed: June 21, 2021

Level of Evidence: Expert Opinion/Consensus Statement

Caution is required when NSAIDs are used for preventive therapy, as their use is associated with induction of medication-overuse headache and chronification of migraine [185]. Although the Canadian Headache Society guideline for migraine prophylaxis recommends the use of the anticonvulsant gabapentin, this is not supported by a 2014 Cochrane review or a 2016 review of literature, which confirmed the effectiveness of topiramate, divalproex, and sodium valproate, but concluded that the evidence was insufficient to support the use of gabapentin [152,188,224]. Extended-release topiramate is contraindicated in patients with metabolic acidosis taking metformin, during pregnancy, in women of childbearing age not using contraception, and in patients with recent alcohol use (within six hours prior or six hours following administration). Divalproex and sodium valproate are contraindicated in patients with impaired liver function, urea cycle disorders, and pregnant women (for the prevention of migrane) [176].

For the prevention of menstrual migraines, the AHS/AAN recommend frovatriptan (2.5 mg twice daily perimenstrually, following a loading dose), naratriptan (1 mg twice daily perimenstrually for five days), or zolmitriptan (2.5 mg two or three times per day perimenstrually). It should be noted, however, that the FDA did not feel evidence for triptans, including frovatriptan, was sufficient to approve these medications for prevention of migraine [74,186,215]. The AHS recommends an NSAID (such as naproxen 550 mg) twice-daily for five to seven days surrounding the menstrual window, estrogen supplementation of 1 mg per day during menstruation, and magnesium supplementation 15 days from the start of menses until menses begins [215].

TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY CHRONIC MIGRAINE

Up to 10% of migraine sufferers become less responsive to preventive migraine medications. A variety of mechanisms have been implicated in tolerance, including pharmacokinetic (e.g., metabolic, drug-drug interactions), pharmacodynamic (e.g., receptor down-regulation), behavioral (e.g., unconscious adaptations), drug-induced disease progression (e.g., medication overuse, opioid abuse), and natural variability of migraine factors [189]. For these patients, a review of therapy compliance, drug quality and delivery, and environmental aggravating factors is the effective first step. Drug dosages should be adjusted or patients may be switched to an alternative medication. An effort should be made to identify and manage environmental and lifestyle triggers (e.g., sleep patterns, smoking, excess caffeine). Patients may benefit from a drug holiday of two to three months to obtain accurate baseline information and compare treatment effects.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW THERAPIES FOR MIGRAINE

Research has provided a better understanding of the pathophysiology of migraine, and effective translational medicine is beginning to lead to the availability of new drugs.

As previously noted, gap junction channels appear to be involved in several ways in the pathophysiology of migraine, although limited research has been conducted on gap junction blockers in the prevention or treatment of migraine and results have been conflicting. Clinical studies have shown that efficacy for the gap junction blocker tonabersat remains unclear [192,193,213].

Occipital nerve stimulation has been found to be effective in the treatment of medication-resistant chronic migraine. The European Headache Federation recommends the use of this modality after all alternative drug and behavioral therapies have failed [194].

In 2013, the FDA approved a device using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) technology for use when a patient with migraine feels a headache or migraine coming on or when the pain begins. This device is held to the back of head with both hands and a button is quickly pressed and released, sending a magnetic pulse to stimulate the brain's occipital cortex. This is the only device that has received FDA approval to treat migraine with aura [195].

In 2014, the FDA approved the first transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) device as an alternative to medication for migraine prevention [195]. This approach consists of a small, portable, battery-powered, prescription device that resembles a plastic headband worn across the forehead. The patient positions the device in the center of the forehead, just above the eyes, using a self-adhesive electrode. The device applies an electric current to stimulate branches of the trigeminal nerve [195]. The TENS device is specifically authorized to be used prior to the onset of headache in patients with a history of chronic migraine.

MIGRAINE IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Migraine in children and adolescents is relatively common and potentially disabling. It may be more prevalent than data from national health surveys indicate. A systematic review of population-based studies found that the prevalence of migraine is 9.7% in female children and adolescents and 6% in male children and adolescents [231]. Adolescents with migraine are reported to have high levels of disability, low health-related quality of life, and tend to have inferior academic performance as compared to their peers [232]. A Canadian health survey, conducted over multiple time periods and involving 61,000 subjects between 12 and 19 years of age, found a strong and consistent association between migraine and anxiety/mood disorders and perceived mental health in adolescents [232]. The authors recommended screening for symptoms of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents presenting with migraines. According to a review of pediatric clinical studies, the most effective pediatric/adolescent management strategy includes the combination of timely pharmacologic interventions (NSAIDs and/or triptans) for acute attacks combined with education in self-management techniques and biopsychosocial approaches such as biofeedback, relaxation therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy [233].

In 2019, the AAN and the AHS published practice guidelines for treatment of acute migraine in children and adolescents [234]. Ibuprofen oral solution (10 mg/kg) is the initial treatment option recommended to reduce pain and is more likely to be effective when administered early, within one hour of headache onset. The efficacy of triptans is less well established, and triptans are less commonly prescribed in children than in adults. Four triptans have been approved by the FDA for treatment of migraine in adolescents (12 to 17 years of age): sumatriptan/naproxen, almotriptan, rizatriptan, and zolmitriptan. When response to a triptan is less than satisfactory, ibuprofen or naproxen in combination should be offered to improve migraine relief. It is important to counsel patients and families on the cumulative duration limits of NSAID and triptan use to avoid adverse effects and overuse headache. AAN/AHS guidelines recommend that ibuprofen or acetaminophen use be limited to no more than 14 days per month, and triptan use limited to no more than 9 days per month [232]. Ergots and naproxen for acute migraine have not been studied in children [234].

CONSIDERATIONS FOR NON-ENGLISH-PROFICIENT PATIENTS

As a result of the evolving demographics in the United States, interaction with patients for whom English is not a native language is inevitable. Because patient history is such a vital aspect of the assessment of migraine, it is each practitioner's responsibility to ensure that information and instructions are explained in such a way that allows for patient understanding. In this multicultural landscape, interpreters are a valuable resource to help bridge the communication and cultural gap between clients/patients and practitioners. Interpreters are more than passive agents who translate and transmit information back and forth from party to party. When they are enlisted and treated as part of the interdisciplinary clinical team, they serve as cultural brokers, who ultimately enhance the clinical encounter. In any case in which information regarding diagnostic procedures, treatment options, and medication/treatment measures is being provided, the use of an interpreter should be considered.

7. CONCLUSION

Migraine is a complex and multifaceted condition that requires an appropriate evaluation, detailed medical history, and neurologic examination. Other primary and secondary causes of headache should be considered in the clinical evaluation in order to ensure the correct diagnosis. After the diagnosis of migraine is established, an individualized management strategy should be crafted using the combination of nonpharmacologic, pharmacologic, and patient education interventions. Optimization of therapy for either abortive or prophylactic management of acute or chronic migraine is required, and interprofessional collaboration between primary care providers and specialists is necessary to effectively treat patients with challenging migraines.

8. RESOURCES

American Academy of Neurology

https://www.aan.com

American Migraine Foundation

https://americanmigrainefoundation.org

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)

https://www.ninds.nih.gov

American Headache Society

https://americanheadachesociety.org

European Headache Federation

https://ehf-org.org

The Migraine Research Foundation

https://migraineresearchfoundation.org

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