98940 • Nutrition Therapy for Metabolic Syndrome

Table of Contents

98940 • Nutrition Therapy for Metabolic Syndrome

How to Receive Credit

Course Overview

Audience

Accreditations & Approvals

Designations of Credit

Individual State Nursing Approvals

Special Approvals

Course Objective

Learning Objectives

Faculty

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planners

Division Planners Disclosure

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Director Disclosure Statement

About the Sponsor

Disclosure Statement

Implicit Bias in Health Care

1. INTRODUCTION

2. REDUCTION IN CALORIES

3. DIETARY REFERENCE VALUES

4. DIETARY GUIDELINES

5. CASE STUDY

Works Cited

98940 • Nutrition Therapy for Metabolic Syndrome

John J. Whyte, MD, MPH

www.netce.com

Copyright © 2026 NetCE, All rights reserved.

Metabolic syndrome is a growing public health concern associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic health conditions. Nutrition therapy is a cornerstone of management, yet many healthcare professionals receive limited training in evidence-based dietary counseling. This course reviews the role of nutrition in the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome, including calorie reduction, portion control, dietary reference values, and current dietary recommendations. Participants will examine the evidence surrounding popular dietary approaches, learn practical strategies for promoting sustainable behavior change, and review the 2025–2030 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Through discussion of current research and a patient case study, learners will gain knowledge and skills to provide effective nutrition counseling that supports weight management, improves cardiometabolic risk factors, and promotes long-term health.

98940 • Nutrition Therapy for Metabolic Syndrome

Education Category. Infection Control / Internal Medicine

Release Date. 09/01/2026

Expiration Date. 08/31/2029

How to Receive Credit

To complete this course for continuing education credit please go to http://www.netce.com/course/3656 in your browser.

For assistance with receiving continuing education credit, please contact us at help@netce.com.

Course Overview

Metabolic syndrome is a growing public health concern associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic health conditions. Nutrition therapy is a cornerstone of management, yet many healthcare professionals receive limited training in evidence-based dietary counseling. This course reviews the role of nutrition in the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome, including calorie reduction, portion control, dietary reference values, and current dietary recommendations. Participants will examine the evidence surrounding popular dietary approaches, learn practical strategies for promoting sustainable behavior change, and review the 2025–2030 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Through discussion of current research and a patient case study, learners will gain knowledge and skills to provide effective nutrition counseling that supports weight management, improves cardiometabolic risk factors, and promotes long-term health.

Audience

This course is designed for physicians, PAs, and nursing professionals involved in the care of patients with or at risk for metabolic syndrome.

Accreditations & Approvals

In support of improving patient care, TRC Healthcare/NetCE is jointly accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), and the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC), to provide continuing education for the healthcare team. NetCE is accredited by the International Accreditors for Continuing Education and Training (IACET). NetCE complies with the ANSI/IACET Standard, which is recognized internationally as a standard of excellence in instructional practices. As a result of this accreditation, NetCE is authorized to issue the IACET CEU.

Designations of Credit

This activity was planned by and for the healthcare team, and learners will receive 1 Interprofessional Continuing Education (IPCE) credit(s) for learning and change. NetCE designates this enduring material for a maximum of 1 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity. NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 1 ANCC contact hour(s). NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 1.2 hours for Alabama nurses. Successful completion of this CME activity, which includes participation in the evaluation component, enables the participant to earn up to 1 MOC points in the American Board of Internal Medicine's (ABIM) Maintenance of Certification (MOC) program. Participants will earn MOC points equivalent to the amount of CME credits claimed for the activity. It is the CME activity provider's responsibility to submit participant completion information to ACCME for the purpose of granting ABIM MOC credit. Completion of this course constitutes permission to share the completion data with ACCME. Successful completion of this CME activity, which includes participation in the evaluation component, enables the learner to earn credit toward the CME and/or Self-Assessment requirements of the American Board of Surgery's Continuous Certification program. It is the CME activity provider's responsibility to submit learner completion information to ACCME for the purpose of granting ABS credit. This activity has been approved for the American Board of Anesthesiology’s® (ABA) requirements for Part II: Lifelong Learning and Self-Assessment of the American Board of Anesthesiology’s (ABA) redesigned Maintenance of Certification in Anesthesiology Program® (MOCA®), known as MOCA 2.0®. Please consult the ABA website, www.theABA.org, for a list of all MOCA 2.0 requirements. Maintenance of Certification in Anesthesiology Program® and MOCA® are registered certification marks of the American Board of Anesthesiology®. MOCA 2.0® is a trademark of the American Board of Anesthesiology®. Successful completion of this CME activity, which includes participation in the activity with individual assessments of the participant and feedback to the participant, enables the participant to earn 1 MOC points in the American Board of Pediatrics' (ABP) Maintenance of Certification (MOC) program. It is the CME activity provider's responsibility to submit participant completion information to ACCME for the purpose of granting ABP MOC credit. This activity has been designated for 1 Lifelong Learning (Part II) credits for the American Board of Pathology Continuing Certification Program. Through an agreement between the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, medical practitioners participating in the Royal College MOC Program may record completion of accredited activities registered under the ACCME's "CME in Support of MOC" program in Section 3 of the Royal College's MOC Program. AACN Synergy CERP Category A. NetCE is authorized by IACET to offer 0.1 CEU(s) for this program.

Individual State Nursing Approvals

In addition to states that accept ANCC, NetCE is approved as a provider of continuing education in nursing by: Alabama, Provider #ABNP0353 (valid through July 30, 2029); Arkansas, Provider #50-2405; California, BRN Provider #CEP9784; California, LVN Provider #V10662; California, PT Provider #V10842; District of Columbia, Provider #50-2405; Florida, Provider #50-2405; Georgia, Provider #50-2405; Kentucky, Provider #7-0054 through 12/31/2027; South Carolina, Provider #50-2405; West Virginia RN and APRN, Provider #50-2405.

Special Approvals

This activity is designed to comply with the requirements of California Assembly Bill 1195, Cultural and Linguistic Competency.

Course Objective

The purpose of this course is to provide healthcare professionals with current evidence-based information regarding nutrition therapy for metabolic syndrome.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Identify key dietary counseling strategies that support weight loss and cardiometabolic risk reduction in patients with metabolic syndrome, including calorie reduction, portion control, and sustainable lifestyle change.

2. Recognize appropriate macronutrient ranges, nutrient adequacy concerns, and the importance of individualized healthy eating rather than restrictive diet plans.

3. Apply current Dietary Guidelines recommendations to patient education by emphasizing nutrient-dense foods, appropriate caloric intake, reduced intake of highly processed foods, sodium, saturated fat, added sugars, and alcohol, and integration of physical activity and healthy weight maintenance.

Faculty

John J. Whyte, MD, MPH, is currently the Chief Medical Officer at WebMD. In this role, he leads efforts to develop and expand strategic partnerships that create meaningful change around important and timely public health issues. Previously, Dr. Whyte was the Director of Professional Affairs and Stakeholder Engagement at the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research and the Chief Medical Expert and Vice President, Health and Medical Education at Discovery Channel, part of the media conglomerate Discovery Communications.
Prior to this, Dr. Whyte was in the Immediate Office of the Director at the Agency for Healthcare Research Quality. He served as Medical Advisor/Director of the Council on Private Sector Initiatives to Improve the Safety, Security, and Quality of Healthcare. Prior to this assignment, Dr. Whyte was the Acting Director, Division of Medical Items and Devices in the Coverage and Analysis Group in the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). CMS is the federal agency responsible for administering the Medicare and Medicaid programs. In his role at CMS, Dr.Whyte made recommendations as to whether or not the Medicare program should pay for certain procedures, equipment, or services. His division was responsible for durable medical equipment, orthotics/prosthetics, drugs/biologics/therapeutics, medical items, laboratory tests, and non-implantable devices. As Division Director as well as Medical Officer/Senior Advisor, Dr. Whyte was responsible for more national coverage decisions than any other CMS staff.
Dr. Whyte is a board-certified internist. He completed an internal medicine residency at Duke University Medical Center as well as earned a Master’s of Public Health (MPH) in Health Policy and Management at Harvard University School of Public Health. Prior to arriving in Washington, Dr. Whyte was a health services research fellow at Stanford and attending physician in the Department of Medicine. He has written extensively in the medical and lay press on health policy issues.

Faculty Disclosure

Contributing faculty, John J. Whyte, MD, MPH, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Division Planners

John M. Leonard, MD

Mary Franks, MSN, APRN, FNP-C

Division Planners Disclosure

The division planners have disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

Director of Development and Academic Affairs

Sarah Campbell

Director Disclosure Statement

The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.

Implicit Bias in Health Care

The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern, as there is some evidence that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions. Implicit biases may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages.

Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be categorized as change-based or control-based. Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors. These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nutritional advice is critical in the management of metabolic syndrome. Most clinicians, however, are not well informed about the principles of healthy eating. Healthcare professionals should learn the latest research and recommendations concerning carbohydrates, fats, and protein. With this information, one can provide useful advice to patients about healthy eating.

Evidence Based Practice Recommendation

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends that clinicians offer or refer patients with a BMI of 30 or greater intensive, multicomponent behavioral interventions.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2702878

Last Accessed: August 28, 2026

Strength of Recommendation: B (The USPSTF strongly recommends that clinicians routinely screen eligible patients. The USPSTF found good evidence that obesity screening improves important health outcomes and concludes that benefits substantially outweigh harms.)

Despite skepticism by some clinicians, providing dietary information to patients has been found to be an effective intervention. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), an independent panel of experts in primary care and prevention that systematically reviews the evidence of effectiveness and develops recommendations for clinical preventive services, found with moderate certainty that medium- or high-intensity primary care behavioral counseling interventions to promote a healthful diet and physical activity have a small net benefit in adult patients without cardiovascular disease, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, or diabetes, but no consistent benefit on all-cause or cardiovascular mortality or morbidity [1]. Intensive counseling interventions have been examined in controlled trials among at-risk adult patients. These trials combined nutrition education with behavioral dietary counseling provided by a nutritionist, dietitian, or specially trained primary care clinician (e.g., physician, nurse, or nurse practitioner). The USPSTF concluded that such counseling is likely to improve important health outcomes but that clinicians should consider patient readiness for change, social support and community resources that support behavioral change, and other healthcare and preventive service priorities to avoid lost opportunities to provide other healthcare services that offer a greater health effect [1]. Assessing dietary patterns and recommending change is critical for success.

2. REDUCTION IN CALORIES

One of the most important components relating to nutritional advice for patients who are overweight is reduction of calories. Patients should understand that the energy stored in food is measured in terms of calories. One calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C. Most people's daily caloric requirement is less than 2,000 calories. As a quick rule of thumb, patients can calculate the number of daily calories they require by multiplying their current weight in pounds by 13 (or 15 if one is active). Patients who are overweight should reduce the number of consumed calories in order to lose weight. Reduction in calories is the most important dietary component of weight loss.

Between 2007 and 2008 in the United States, the average daily caloric intake rose for men and women, and a high portion of the extra calories was from carbohydrates, according to data from NHANES [2]. Between 2007 and 2008, women consumed 1,771 calories per day on average. Men's caloric intake was 2,504 calories per day over the same period. Energy intake appeared relatively stable over the 10-year period from 1999 to 2008 [2]. A look at NHANES data up to 2002 found that Americans have been consuming both increasingly larger amounts of food and more energy-dense foods than in earlier years [3]. On average, U.S. residents were 25 pounds heavier in 2002 than they were in 1960. The average weight for men increased to 191 pounds in 2002 from 166.3 pounds in 1960. In women, the average weight increased to 164.3 pounds from 140.2 pounds during the same period [4]. NHANES data from 2013–2014 indicates that less than one-third of U.S. adults maintain a healthy weight [5]. This is largely due to an increase in daily calorie consumption. NHANES data from 2009–2010 found that Americans snacked more between lunch and dinner and often snacked in place of meals [6].

When recommending reduction in calories, specific guidelines should be kept in mind. Patients with a BMI between 27 and 35 should reduce their total calorie intake by 300–500 daily. Patients with a BMI greater than 35 should reduce their total calories by 500–750 daily [7]. This reduction will produce the recommended weight loss of 1–2 pounds per week in most patients.

Portion control is also a key to weight loss. Portion control has been shown to produce the greatest weight loss in women over a 24-month period, more than reduced dietary fat consumption, increased fruit and vegetable consumption, or increased physical activity [8]. Thirty-eight percent of obese patients who consistently practiced food portion control lost 5% or more of their baseline weight, while 33% of patients who did not consistently practice portion control gained 5% or more of their baseline weight. A 2006 study by the same researchers involving overweight and obese men showed that using controlled portions of food led to more weight loss than a self-selected diet based on the food guide pyramid [9]. (Note: The historical food guide pyramid is considered obsolete.)

3. DIETARY REFERENCE VALUES

Since the 1990s, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) has issued a series of reports that suggest dietary reference values for intake of nutrients. One of these reports, updated in 2005, establishes the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for energy, carbohydrates, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. The following ranges are recommended in the 2005 report for percentage of daily caloric intake [11]:

- Carbohydrates: 45% to 65%

- Sugars: No more than 25%

- Fats: 20% to 35%

- Protein: 10% to 35%

- Fiber: Men younger than 50 years of age should receive 38 g of fiber; women younger than 50 years of age need 25 g. Men older than 50 years of age should receive 30 g of fiber; women older than 50 years require 21 g.

Patients should be aware of these values and keep them in mind when designing a nutritional program. Reviewing and modifying nutritional intake is one of the most important steps in helping patients lose weight. It is not about dieting but rather a lifestyle of healthy eating. The issue is not low carbohydrate versus low fat. Rather, it is a spectrum of choices.

With all the publicity regarding various diets, patients should be advised that it is as important to include certain foods as it is to exclude others. "Fad diets" typically exclude certain foods and therefore often have nutritional deficiencies. For example, high-fat, low-carbohydrate diets are low in vitamin E, vitamin A, thiamin, folate, calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Low-fat diets are typically deficient in vitamin B12. Additionally, a meta-analysis and systematic review of long-term studies of low-fat, high-protein diets found no net benefit on outcome markers of obesity, cardiovascular disease, or glycemic control [12].

Studies have been published comparing popular diets. Researchers at Tufts-New England Medical Center randomized patients to the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets to evaluate their effects on weight loss and reduction in cardiac risk [13]. The study involved 160 patients ranging in age from 22 to 72 years. All had at least one risk factor for heart disease, such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, or fasting hyperglycemia, and all were either overweight or obese. Patients received counseling on their plans for 2 months and then followed the diet on their own for 10 months.

At the end of one year, all the patients decreased their weight by approximately 4%. In addition, all groups showed both a reduction in LDL cholesterol and an increase in HDL levels. Moreover, all patients who completed the study showed some reduction in risk of heart disease at one year, irrespective of diet. However, by one year, approximately one-half of the patients enrolled in the Atkins and Ornish programs had dropped out, and one-third of patients in the Weight Watchers and Zone program had quit.

Another study compared the Atkins, Ornish, Zone, and LEARN (lifestyle, exercise, attitudes, relationships, and nutrition) diets in overweight and obese women [14]. Women on the Atkins diet lost the most weight (i.e., 4.7 kg at 12 months), but the difference between diets was significant only for Atkins versus Zone. Also at 12 months, changes in LDL cholesterol were not significantly different among the groups.

In yet another study, researchers randomized 132 patients with a BMI greater than 35 to either a low-carbohydrate diet (i.e., less than 30 g/d) or a low-fat diet (i.e., less than 30% calories from fat) [15]. Although the low-carbohydrate group lost more fat at six months, both groups had the same weight loss at one year (i.e., 3–4 kg). Of note, there was no difference between groups in total and LDL cholesterol levels. Both groups had a dropout rate of nearly one-third.

Intermittent fasting and time-restricted feeding are also being investigated for their potential in regulating and improving chronic health conditions and disorders, including cardiovascular disease [16,17,18].

Instead of counseling patients about specific diets, it is more useful to focus on healthy eating.

4. DIETARY GUIDELINES

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Agriculture publish the Dietary Guidelines for Americans every five years. The 2025–2030 edition continues to emphasize the importance of healthy dietary patterns across the lifespan but places greater emphasis on consuming whole, nutrient-dense foods while limiting highly processed products [10]. The Guidelines are intended to promote dietary choices that support health, reduce the risk of chronic disease, and provide adequate nutrition through food rather than supplements whenever possible. They also underscore the importance of individualized eating patterns that account for age, health status, cultural preferences, and personal circumstances.

The 2025–2030 Dietary Guidelines encourage Americans to adopt eating patterns centered on nutrient-dense foods, including [10]:

- Eating the appropriate amount of food and calories based on age, sex, body size, and physical activity level.

- Prioritizing high-quality protein foods at meals, including seafood, poultry, eggs, lean meats, beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy products.

- Consuming a variety of vegetables and fruits throughout the day, with an emphasis on whole foods rather than juice.

- Including dairy foods as part of a healthy dietary pattern.

- Choosing fiber-rich whole grains and substantially reducing refined grains and other highly processed carbohydrate sources.

- Incorporating healthy fats from foods such as fish, nuts, seeds, olives, avocados, and plant oils.

- Limiting highly processed foods, added sugars, refined carbohydrates, and sugar-sweetened beverages.

- Limiting alcohol consumption.

Overall, a healthy dietary pattern is one that emphasizes vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole grains, nuts, seeds, seafood, dairy foods, and other nutrient-dense protein sources while minimizing highly processed foods and beverages. The Guidelines encourage preparing meals from whole foods whenever possible and choosing foods that provide vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, and other beneficial nutrients without excessive amounts of added sugars, sodium, and saturated fat [10].

The following quantitative recommendations remain important components of a healthy dietary pattern [10]:

- Saturated fat intake should generally remain below 10% of total daily calories.

- Sodium intake for individuals 14 years of age and older should be less than 2,300 mg per day.

- Alcohol consumption should be limited, and certain populations, including pregnant individuals and those with certain medical conditions, should avoid alcohol entirely.

- Added sugars should be minimized, and sugar-sweetened beverages should be avoided whenever possible.

To promote overall health and reduce the risk of chronic disease, individuals should combine healthy eating patterns with regular physical activity and maintenance of a healthy body weight.

Special guidance is provided for infants, children, and adolescents. Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for approximately the first six months of life when possible, with nutrient-dense complementary foods introduced around six months of age. Children and adolescents should consume a variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages that support healthy growth and development while limiting added sugars and highly processed foods [10].

5. CASE STUDY

Mr. G is a White man, 54 years of age, with a past medical history of hypertension. At his yearly physical, he reports that he is doing well overall, with no complaints other than some dyspnea on exertion, which has been long-standing. Current medications include a thiazide diuretic and aspirin. He works as an accountant and does not get much physical activity during the day.

On exam, Mr. G is 5'11" and 210 lbs. His BMI is 29. This classifies him as overweight.

(BMI may be used to help define overweight and obesity, which is weight-adjusted for height. It is calculated by [weight in kg] divided by [height in meters]2 OR [weight in pounds] divided by [height in inches]2 x 703. A BMI of 25.0 or greater is defined as overweight, and a BMI of 30.0 or more is considered obese.)

Based on his waist circumference, IFG, decreased HDL, and increased triglycerides, Mr. G. meets the definition of metabolic syndrome. Aggressive treatment of the risk factors is warranted.

Currently, Mr. G snacks on sugary treats throughout the day, as he does not take time to eat breakfast and frequently goes without lunch. By the time he eats dinner, relatively late in the evening, he is famished and tends to overeat. Mr. G has very little nutritional information about the food he eats. Either the physician can provide some basic dietary information, or the patient can be referred to a dietitian. The goals of dietary counseling for Mr. G would be:

- Mr. G first should understand roughly how many calories he is consuming per day. His goal should be to consume no more than 2,000 calories per day. He may wish to keep a food log for two to three days to get a better idea of exactly how much he is eating. This log could be reviewed at the next visit.

- He should divide the recommended calories over at least three meals. Eating breakfast should be emphasized, as there is data that supports the premise that eating breakfast helps to maintain one's weight rather than cause weight gain.

- In addition, he should minimize snacking on food high in sugar, sodium, and added fat and substitute these for nutrient-dense food/beverage choices. Because he consumes a fair amount of soda, simply eliminating one can of soda per day could lead to a 5- to 10-pound weight loss over the course of a year. The emphasis should be on gradual lifestyle changes that are sustainable and acceptable to Mr. G.

Works Cited

1. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement. Healthy Diet and Physical Activity for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Adults Without Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: Behavioral Counseling Interventions. Available at https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/healthy-lifestyle-and-physical-activity-for-cvd-prevention-adults-without-known-risk-factors-behavioral-counseling. Last accessed August 6, 2026.

2. Wright JD, Wang C-Y. Trends in Intake of Energy and Macronutrients in Adults From 1999–2000 Through 2007–2008. NCHS Data Brief, No. 49. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2010.

3. Kant AK, Graubard BI. Secular trends in patterns of self-reported food consumption of adult Americans: NHANES 1971–1975 to NHANES 1999–2002. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(5):1215-1223.

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Americans Slightly Taller, Much Heavier than Four Decades Ago. Available at https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov/media/pressrel/r041027.htm. Last accessed August 6, 2026.

5. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Overweight and Obesity Statistics. Available at https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-statistics/overweight-obesity#econ. Last accessed August 6, 2026.

6. Kant AK, Graubard BI. 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2015;115(1):50-63.

7. Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63;25.

8. Hannum SM, Carson L, Evans EM, et al. Use of portion-controlled entrees enhances weight loss in women. Obes Res. 2004;12(3):538-546.

9. Hannum SM, Carson LA, Evans EM, et al. Use of packaged entrees as part of a weight-loss diet in overweight men: an 8-week randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2006;8(2):146-155.

10. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2025–2030, 10th ed. Available at https://cdn.realfood.gov/DGA.pdf. Last accessed August 6, 2026.

11. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2005.

12. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Long-term effects of low-fat diets either low or high in protein on cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr J. 2013;12:48.

13. Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2005;293(1):43-53.

14. Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhassan S, et al. Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women: the A TO Z Weight Loss Study: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2007;297(9):969-977.

15. Stern L, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, et al. The effects of low-carbohydrate versus conventional weight loss diets in severely obese adults: one-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140(10):778-785.

16. Jaramillo AP, Castells J, Ibrahimli S, et al. Time-restricted feeding and intermittent fasting as preventive therapeutics: a systematic review of the literature. Cureus. 2023;15(7):e42300.

17. Dong TA, Sandesara PB, Dhindsa DS, et al. Intermittent fasting: a heart healthy dietary pattern? Am J Med. 2020;133(8):901-907.

18. Longo VD, Panda S. Fasting, circadian rhythms, and time-restricted feeding in healthy lifespan. Cell Metab. 2016;23(6):1048-1059.