Works Cited

Hyperlipidemias and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease

Course #90844 - $60 -

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

1. Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2019 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;139(10):e56-e528.

2. European Heart Network. European Cardiovascular Disease Statistics 2017. Available at https://ehnheart.org/cvd-statistics.html. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

3. World Health Organization. Cardiovascular Diseases. Available at https://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/en/. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

4. Rosamond WD, Chambless LE, Heiss G, et al. Twenty-two Year Trends in the incidence of myocardial infarction, CHD mortality, and case-fatality in four US communities, 1987 to 2008. Circulation. 2012;125(15):1848-1857.

5. Fuster V, Kelly BB (eds). Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Preventing the Global Epidemic of Cardiovascular Disease: Meeting the Challenges in Developing Countries; Promoting Cardiovascular Health in the Developing World: A Critical Challenge to Achieve Global Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2010.

6. American College of Cardiology. Heart Disease Remains Top Killer in the United States. Available at https://www.cardiosmart.org/news/2016/1/heart-disease-remains-top-killer-in-united-states. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

7. World Health Organization. WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2021. Available at https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/tobacco-control/global-tobacco-report-2021. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

8. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. The Global Burden of Disease: Generating Evidence, Guiding Policy. Seattle, WA: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation; 2013.

9. Foley KA, Vasey J, Alexander CM, Markson LE. Development and validation of the Hyperlipidemia Attitudes and Beliefs in Treatment (HABIT) survey for physicians. J Gen Intern Med. 2003;18(12):984-990.

10. Foley KA, Vasey J, Alexander CM, Markson LE. The Hyperlipidemia: Attitudes and Beliefs in Treatment (HABIT) survey for patients: results of a validation study. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2005;20(1):35-42.

11. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364(9438):937-952.

12. Lilly LS (ed). Pathophysiology of Heart Disease: A Collaborative Project of Medical Students and Faculty. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins; 2020.

13. Moller DE, Kaufman KD. Metabolic syndrome: a clinical and molecular perspective. Annu Rev Med. 2005;56:45-62.

14. Gurgle HE, Blumenthal DK. Drug therapy for dyslipidemias. In: Brunton L, Hilal-Dandan R, Knollman B (eds). Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 13th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2018: 605-618.

15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Total high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014. NCHS Data Brief. 2015;226:1-8.

16. Gan SI, Edwards AL, Symonds CJ, Beck PL. Hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis: a case-based review. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12(44):7197-7202.

17. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention. Trial results: I. Reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1984;251(3):351-364.

18. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention. Trial results: II. The relationship of reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease to cholesterol lowering. JAMA. 1984;251(3):365-374.

19. Stamler J, Wentworth D, Neaton JD. Is relationship between serum cholesterol and risk of premature death from coronary heart disease continuous and graded? Findings in 356,222 primary screenees of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). JAMA. 1986;256(20):2823-2828.

20. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97(18):1837-1847.

21. Wong ND, Wilson PW, Kannel WB. Serum cholesterol as a prognostic factor after myocardial infarction: the Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115(9):687-693.

22. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CNB, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation. 2004;110(2):227-239.

23. Dembowski E, Davidson MH. A review of lipid management in primary and secondary prevention. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2009;29(1):2-12.

24. Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;139(25):e1082-e1143.

25. Fletcher B, Berra K, Braun LT, et al. Managing abnormal blood lipids: a collaborative approach. Circulation. 2005;112(20):3184-3209.

26. Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(16):1685-1695.

27. Porth CM, Matfin G. Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins; 2009.

28. Glass CK, Witzum JL. Atherosclerosis: the road ahead. Cell. 2001;104(4):503-516.

29. Hammer GD, McPhee SJ. Pathophysiology of Disease: An Introduction to Clinical Medicine. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2019.

30. Krisko TI, Armstrong EJ, Cohen DE. Pharmacology of cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism. In: Golan DE, Armstrong EJ, Armstrong AW (eds). Principles of Pharmacology. The Pathophysiological Basis of Drug Therapy. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health; 2016: 336-357.

31. Ito MK. Dyslipidemias, atherosclerosis, and coronary heart disease. In: Alldredge BK, Corelli RL, Ernst ME, et al. (eds). Koda-Kimble and Young's Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins; 2013: 252-290.

32. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, et al. Statin therapy, LDL cholesterol, C-reactive protein, and coronary artery disease.N Engl J Med. 2005;352(1):29-38.

33. Colles SM, Irwin KC, Chisolm GM. Roles of multiple oxidized LDL lipids in cellular injury: dominance of 7 beta-hydroperoxycholesterol. J Lipid Res. 1996;37(9):2018-2028.

34. Colles SM, Maxson JM, Carlson SG, Chisolm GM. Oxidized LDL-induced injury and apoptosis in atherosclerosis: potential roles for oxysterols. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2001;11(3-4):131-138.

35. Bilheimer DW, Watanabe Y, Kita T. Impaired receptor-mediated catabolism of low density lipoprotein in the WHHL rabbit, an animal model of familial hypercholesterolemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982;79(10):3305-3309.

36. Ravnskov U. Is atherosclerosis caused by high cholesterol? QJM. 2002;95(6):397-403.

37. Schuck RN, Mendys PM, Simpson RJ Jr. Beyond statins: lipid management to reduce cardiovascular risk. Pharmacotherapy. 2013;33(7):754-764.

38. Green PP, Namboodiri KK, Hannan P, et al. The Collaborative Lipid Research Clinics Program Family Study. III: Transformations and covariate adjustments of lipid and lipoprotein levels. Am J Epidemiol. 1984;119(6):959-974.

39. Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1999;353(9147):89-92.

40. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FAH, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(21):2195-2207.

41. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group, Bulbulia R, Bowman L, et al. Effects on 11-year mortality and morbidity of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin for about 5 years in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;378(9808):2013-2020.

42. Mora S, Musunuru K, Blumenthal RS. The clinical utility of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in cardiovascular disease and the potential implication of JUPITER on current practice guidelines. Clin Chem. 2009;55(2):219-228.

43. Pearson TA, Mensah GA, Alexander RW, et al. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: application to clinical and public health practice: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2003;107(3):499-511.

44. Hong YJ, Mintz GS, Kim SW, et al. Impact of plaque rupture and elevated C-reactive protein on clinical outcome in patients with acute myocardial infarction: an intravascular ultrasound study. J Invasiv Cardiol. 2008;20(9):428-435.

45. Zhou J, Austin RC. Contributions of hyperhomocysteinemia and atherosclerosis: causal relationship and potential mechanisms. Biofactors. 2009;35(2):120-129.

46. Porter RS. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 20th ed. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories; 2018.

47. Ellington AA, Kullo IJ. Atherogenic lipoprotein subprofiling. Adv Clin Chem. 2008;46:295-317.

48. Nordestgaard BG, Chapman MJ, Ray K. Lipoprotein(a) as a cardiovascular risk factor: current status. Eur Heart J. 2010;31(23):2844-2853.

49. Genest J, Frohlich J, Fodor G, Mcpherson R, the Working Group on Hypercholesterolemia and Other Dyslipidemias. Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: summary of the 2003 update. CMAJ. 2003;169(9):921-924.

50. Nelson DL, Cox MM. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 8th ed. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company; 2021.

51. Waller DG, Sampson AP, Hitchings AW. Medical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 6th ed. London: Saunders Elsevier; 2022.

52. Kingsbury KJ, Bondy G. Understanding the Essentials of Blood Lipid Metabolism. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/451762_5. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

53. Rhoades RA, Bell DR. Medical Physiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins; 2017.

54. Lee RG, Willingham MC, Davis MA, Skinner KA, Rudel LL. Differential expression of ACAT1 and ACAT2 among cells within liver, intestine, kidney, and adrenal of nonhuman primates. J Lipid Res. 2000;41(12):1991-2001.

55. Duan L-P, Wang HH, Wang DQH. Cholesterol absorption is mainly regulated by the jejunal and ileal ATP-binding cassette sterol efflux transporters Abcg5 and Abcg8 in mice. J Lipid Res. 2004;45(7):1312-1323.

56. Velamakanni S, Wei SL, Janvilisri T, van Veen HW. ABCG transporters: structure, substrate specificities and physiological roles: a brief overview. J Bioenerg Biomembr. 2007;39(5-6):465-471.

57. Cheng A, Leiter LA. Dyslipidemias and antihyperlipidemic drugs. In: Kalant H, Grant DM, Mitchell J (eds). Principles of Medical Pharmacology. 7th ed. Toronto: Elsevier Canada; 2007.

58. Blasiole DA, Davis RA, Attie AD. The physiological and molecular regulation of lipoprotein assembly and secretion. Mol Biosyst. 2007;3(9):608-619.

59. Friedewald WT, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem. 1972;18(6):499-502.

60. Fukuyama N, Homma K, Wakana N, et al. Validation of the Friedewald equation for evaluation of plasma LDL-cholesterol. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2008;43(1):1-5.

61. Chen Y, Zhang X, Baishen P, et al. A modified formula for calculating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol values. Lipids Health Dis. 2010;21;9:52.

62. Puavilai W, Laorugpongse D, Deerochanawong C, Muthapongthavorn N, Srilert P. The accuracy in using modified Friedewald equation to calculate LDL from non-fast triglyceride: a pilot study. J Med Assoc Thai. 2009;92(2):182-187.

63. Ferraro RA, Sathiyakumar V, Blumenthal RS. Understanding Strengths and Limitations of Different Methods of LDL-C Estimation. Available at https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2019/04/02/13/21/understanding-strengths-and-limitations-of-different-methods-of-ldl-c-estimation. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

64. Miller WG, Myers GL, Sakurabayashi I, et al. Seven direct methods for measuring HDL and LDL cholesterol compared with ultracentrifugation reference measurement procedures. Clin Chem. 2010;56(6):977-986.

65. Martin SS, Blaha MJ, Elshazly MB, et al. Comparison of a novel method vs the Friedewald equation for estimating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels from the standard lipid profile. JAMA. 2013;310(19):2061-2068.

66. Ingelsson E, Schaefer EJ, Contois JH, et al. Clinical utility of different lipid measures for prediction of coronary heart disease in men and women. JAMA. 2007;298(7):776-785.

67. Baron RB. Lipid disorders. In: McPhee SJ, Papadakis MA (eds). Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 2016. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2016.

68. Lemieux I, Lamarche B, Couillard C, et al. Total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio vs. LDL cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio as indices of ischemic heart disease risk in men: the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(22):2685-2692.

69. Fernandez ML, Webb D. The LDL to HDL cholesterol ratio as a valuable tool to evaluate coronary heart disease risk. J Am Coll Nutr. 2008;27(1):1-5.

70. Yongyan S, Yang Y, Zhang J, et al. The apoB100/apoAI ratio is independently associated with the severity of coronary heart disease: a cross sectional study in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Lipids Health Dis. 2015;14:150.

71. César TB, Oliveira MRM, Mesquita CH, Maranhão RC. High cholesterol intake modifies chylomicron metabolism in normolipidemic young men. J Nutr. 2006;136(4):971-976.

72. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. The LDL receptor. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29(4):431-438.

73. Alldredge BK, Corelli RL, Ernst ME, et al. (eds). Koda-Kimble and Young's Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins; 2013.

74. Tarugi P, Averna M, Di Leo E, et al. Molecular diagnosis of hypobetalipoproteinemia: an ENID review. Atherosclerosis. 2007;195(2):e19-e27.

75. Genest J. Lipoprotein disorders and cardiovascular risk. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2003;26(2-3):267-287.

76. Ip S, Lichtenstein AH, Chung M, Lau J, Balk EM. Systematic review: association of low-density lipoprotein subfractions with cardiovascular outcomes. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(7):474-484.

77. Prado KB, Shugg S, Backstrand JR. Low-density lipoprotein particle number predicts coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic adults at intermediate risk of cardiovascular disease. J Clin Lipidol. 2011;5(5):408-413.

78. Kjellmo CA, Hovland A, Lappegard KT. CVD risk stratification in the PCSK9 era: is there a role for LDL subfractions? Diseases. 2018;6(2):pii:E45.

79. Matfin G. Disorders of blood flow in the systemic circulation. In: Porth CM, Matfin G (eds). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009: 477-504.

80. Shin DJ, Osborne TF. Thyroid hormone regulation and cholesterol metabolism are connected through Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein-2 (SREBP-2). J Biol Chem. 2003;278(36):34114-34118.

81. Nachimuthu S, Raggi P. Novel agents to manage dyslipidemias and impact atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets. 2006;6(3):209-217.

82. Soutar AK, Naoumova RP. Mechanisms of disease: genetic causes of familial hypercholesterolemia. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2007;4(4):214-225.

83. Rader DJ, Cohen J, Hobbs HH. Monogenic hypercholesterolemia: new insights in pathogenesis and treatment. J Clin Invest. 2003;111(12):1795-1803.

84. Goldstein JL, Hobbs HH, Brown MS. Familial hypercholesterolemia. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, Valle D (eds).The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 2863-2913.

85. Klouche M. Estrogens in human vascular diseases. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1089:431-443.

86. MBewu AD, Durrington PN. Lipoprotein (a): structure, properties and possible involvement in thrombogenesis and atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis. 1990;85(1):1-14.

87. Tsimikas S, Tsironis LD, Tselepis AD. New insights into the role of lipoprotein(a)-associated lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27(10):2094-2099.

88. Tabet F, Rye KA. High-density lipoproteins, inflammation and oxidative stress. Clin Sci (Lond). 2009;116(2):87-98.

89. Lewis GF, Rader DJ. New insights into the regulation of HDL metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport. Circ Res. 2005;96: 1221-1232.

90. Kolovou GD, Mikhailidis DP, Anagnostopoulou KK, Daskalopoulou SS, Cokkinos DV. Tangier disease four decades of research: a reflection of the importance of HDL. Curr Med Chem. 2006;13(7):771-782.

91. Sampietro T, Puntoni M, Bigazzi F, et al. Images in cardiovascular medicine: Tangier disease in severely progressive coronary and peripheral artery disease. Circulation. 2009;119(20):2741-2742.

92. Navab M, Yu R, Gharavi N, et al. High-density lipoprotein: antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2007;9(3):244-248.

93. Briel M, Ferreira-Gonzalez I, You JJ, et al. Association between change in high density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. BMJ. 2009;338(b92):1-8.

94. Gibbons GH, Shurin SB, Mensah GA, Lauer MS. Refocusing the agenda on cardiovascular guidelines: an announcement from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Circulation. 2013;128(15):1713-1715.

95. Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(25 Pt B):2889-2934.

96. O'Riordan M. New Cholesterol Guidelines Abandon LDL Targets. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814152. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

97. Ben-Yehuda O, DeMaria AN. LDL-cholesterol targets after the ACC/AHA 2013 guidelines: evidence that lower is better? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(5):495-497.

98. The Merck Manual. Dyslipidemia (Hyperlipidemia). Available at https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/lipid-disorders/dyslipidemia. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

99. Plump AS, Lum PY. Genomics and cardiovascular drug development. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(13):1089-1100.

100. Yuan G, Al-Shali KZ, Hegele RA. Hypertriglyceridemia: its etiology, effects and treatment. CMAJ. 2007;176(8):1113-1120.

101. Hegele RA. Monogenic dyslipidemias: window on determinants of plasma lipoprotein metabolism. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;69(6):1161-1177.

102. Filippatos TD, Elisaf MS. Recommendations for severe hypertriglyceridemia treatment, are there new strategies? Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2014;12(4):598-616.

103. Leaf DA. Chylomicronemia and the chylomicronemia syndrome: a practical approach to management. Am J Med. 2008;121(1): 10-12.

104. Ejarque I, Real JT, Martinez-Hervas S, et al. Evaluation of clinical diagnosis criteria of familial ligand defective apoB 100 and lipoprotein phenotype comparison between LDL receptor gene mutations affecting ligand-binding domain and the R3500Q mutation of the apoB gene in patients from a South European population. Transl Res. 2008;151(3):162-167.

105. Oh RC, Lanier JB. Management of hypertrygliceridemia. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75(9):1365-1371.

106. Aguilar-Salinas C, Gomez-Diaz R, Tusie-Luna MT. Fifty years studying hyperlipidemias: the case of familial combined hyperlipidemia. Invest Clin. 2010;51(2):145-158.

107. July M. Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/121298-overview. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

108. Yuan G, Wang J, Hegele RA. Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: an underrecognized cause of early cardiovascular disease. CMAJ. 2006;174(8):1124-1129.

109. Lexi-Comp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

110. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived News Release: FDA Approves New Orphan Drug Kynamro to Treat Inherited Cholesterol Disorder. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023906/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm337195.htm. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

111. Krauss RM, Blanche PJ, Rawlings RS, Fernstrom HS, Williams PT. Separate effects of reduced carbohydrate intake and weight loss on atherogenic dyslipidemia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(5):1025-1031.

112. Nissen SE, Nicholls SJ, Wolski K, et al. Effects of a potent and selective PPAR-α agonist in patients with atherogenic dyslipidemia or hypercholesterolemia: two randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2007;297(12):1362-1373.

113. Rizzo M, Kotur-Stevuljevic J, Berneis K, et al. Atherogenic dyslipidemia and oxidative stress: a new look. Transl Res. 2009;153(5):217-223.

114. Brook RD. Mechanism of differential effects of antihypertensive agents on serum lipids. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2000;2(4):370-377.

115. Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(Suppl 2):S76-S99.

116. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin J-L, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99(6): 779-785.

117. Leaf A. Dietary Prevention of coronary heart disease: the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99(6):733-735.

118. de Lorgeril M, Salen P. The Mediterranean diet: rationale and evidence for its benefit. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2008;10(6):518-522.

119. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020-2025. Available at https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/resources/2020-2025-dietary-guidelines-online-materials. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

120. The American Heart Association Diet and Lifestyle Recommendations. Available at https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/aha-diet-and-lifestyle-recommendations. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

121. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. DASH Eating Plan. Available at https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/dash-eating-plan. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

122. Seip RL, Semenkovich CF. Skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase: molecular regulation and physiological effects in relation to exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1998;26:191-218.

123. Aminoff MJ, Basbaum AI, Beauduy CE, et al. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2020.

124. Ritter JM, Flower RJ, Henderson G, et al. Rang and Dale's Pharmacology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019.

125. Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ (eds). Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment. 61st ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2021.

126. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Drugs@FDA: FDA Approved Drug Products. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

127. Thomson. Physicians' Desk Reference. 71st ed. Toronto: Thomson Reuters; 2017.

128. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. The Canadian Drug Reference for Health Professionals. Ottawa: Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2013.

129. Einarsson K, Ericsson S, Ewerth S, et al. Bile acid sequestrants: mechanisms of action on bile acid and cholesterol metabolism.Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;40(Suppl 1):S53-S58.

130. Gilardi F, Mitro N, Godio C, et al. The pharmacological exploitation of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, the key enzyme in bile acid synthesis: from binding resins to chromatin remodelling to reduce plasma cholesterol. Pharmacol Ther. 2007;116(3):449-472.

131. Hou R, Goldberg AC. Lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol: statins, ezetimibe, bile acid sequestrants, and combinations: comparative efficacy and safety. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2009;38(1):79-97.

132. Bays HE. Long-term (52-78 weeks) treatment with colesevelam HCl added to metformin therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. Diabetes Metabl Syndr Obes. 2012;5:125-134.

133. Daily Med. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/index.cfm. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

134. Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP. Ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2015; 372:2387-2397.

135. Nordqvist C. Liptruzet Approved by FDA to Cut Cholesterol, Despite Criticism by Cardiologists. Available a22https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/260088. Last accessed July 11, 2019.

136. Drugs.com. Ezetimibe and Atorvastatin Tablets. Available at https://www.drugs.com/drug-shortages/ezetimibe-and-atorvastatin-tablets-169. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

137. Davis HR Jr, Basso F, Hoos LM, Tetzloff G, Lally SM, Altmann SW. Cholesterol homeostasis by the intestine: lessons from Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 (NPC1L1). Atheroscler Suppl. 2008;9(2):77-81.

138. Kidambi S, Patel SB. Cholesterol and non-cholesterol sterol transporters: ABCG5, ABCG8 and NPC1L1: a review. Xenobiotica. 2008;38(7/8):1119-1139.

139. Staels B, Auwerx J. Regulation of apo A-I gene expression by fibrates. Atherosclerosis. 1998;137(Suppl):S19-S23.

140. Harper CR, Jacobson TA. The broad spectrum of statin myopathy: from myalgia to rhabdomyolysis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2007;18(4):401-408.

141. Jones PH. Comparing HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Clin Cardiol. 2003;26(1 Suppl 1):I15-I20.

142. Wang CY, Liu PY, Liao JK. Pleiotropic effects of statin therapy: molecular mechanisms and clinical results. Trends Mol Med. 2008;14(1):37-44.

143. Tang TY, Howarth SP, Miller SR, et al. The ATHEROMA (Atorvastatin Therapy: Effects on Reduction of Macrophage Activity) Study: evaluation using ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in carotid disease.J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(22):2039-2050.

144. Kwak B, Mulhaupt F, Myit S, Mach F. Statins as a newly recognized type of immunomodulator. Nat Med. 2000;6(12):1399-1402.

145. Haag MD, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Stricker BH, Breteler MM. Statins are associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer disease regardless of lipophilicity. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009;80(1):13-17.

146. Hendrie HC, Hake A, Lane K, et al. Stain use, incident dementia and Alzheimer disease in elderly African Americans. Ethn Dis. 2015;25(3):345-354.

147. Padial LR. Ezetimibe plus simvastatin cardiovascular outcomes study program. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2008;6(1):17-25.

148. Tikkanen MJ. Statins: within-group comparisons, statin escape and combination therapy. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1996;7(6):385-388.

149. Insull W Jr. Clinical utility of bile acid sequestrants in the treatment of dyslipidemia: a scientific review. South Med J. 2006;99(3):257-273.

150. Rodriguez-Yañez M, Agulla J, Rodriguez-González R, Sobrino T, Castillo J. Statins and stroke. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis. 2008;2(3):157-166.

151. Fuentes B, Martínez-Sánchez P, Díez-Tejedor E. Lipid-lowering drugs in ischemic stroke prevention and their influence on acute stroke outcome. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2009;27(Suppl 1):126-133.

152. Amarenco P, Labreuche J. Lipid management in the prevention of stroke: review and updated meta-analysis of statins for stroke prevention. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(5):453-463.

153. Gaist D, García Rodríguez LA, Huerta C, Hallas J, Sindrup SH. Are users of lipid-lowering drugs at increased risk of peripheral neuropathy? Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2001;56(12):931-933.

154. Stein EA, Ballantyne CM, Windler E, et al. A randomized, double-blind, double dummy comparison of efficacy and tolerability of fluvastatin XL 80 mg alone, ezetimibe alone, and the combination of fluvastatin XL 80 mg with ezetimibe in patients with a history of muscle related side effects with other statins. Circulation. 2006;101(4):490-496.

155. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: Important Safety Label Changes to Cholesterol-Lowering Statin Drugs. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-important-safety-label-changes-cholesterol-lowering-statin-drugs. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

156. ConsumerMedSafety.org. FDA Expands Advice on Statin Risk. Available at https://www.consumermedsafety.org/latest-fda-medication-alerts/item/532-fda-expands-advice-on-statin-risks. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

157. Keating AJ, Campbell KB, Guyton JR. Intermittent nondaily dosing strategies in patients with previous statin-induced myopathy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(3):398-404.

158. Bogsrud MP, Langlset G, Ose L, et al. No effect of combined coenzyme Q10 and selenium supplementation on atorvastatin-induced myopathy. Scand Cardiovasc J. 2013;47(2):80-87.

159. Qu H, Guo M, Chai H, Wang WT, Gao ZY, Shi DZ. Effects of coenzyme Q10 on statin-induced myopathy: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2018;7(19):e009835.

160. Taylor BA, Lorson L, White CM, Thompson PD. A randomized trial of coenzyme Q10 in patients with confirmed statin myopathy. Atherosclerosis. 2015;238(2):329-335.

161. Dirks AJ, Jones KM. Statin-induced apoptosis and skeletal myopathy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006;291(6):C1208-C1212.

162. Omar MA, Wilson JP, Cox TS. Rhabdomyolysis and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35(9):1096-1107.

163. Bottorff MB. Statin safety and drug interactions: clinical implications. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8A):27C-31C.

164. McKenney JM, Davidson MH, Jacobson TA, Guyton JR. Final conclusions and recommendations of the National Lipid Association Statin Safety Assessment Task Force. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8A):89C-94C.

165. Gille A, Bodor ET, Ahmed K, Offermanns S. Nicotinic acid: pharmacological effects and mechanisms of action. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008;48:79-106.

166. Hathcock JN. Vitamin and Mineral Safety. 3rd ed. Available at http://www.crnusa.org/resources/vitamin-mineral-safety. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

167. Lloyd-Jones DM, Morris PB, Ballantyne CM, et al. 2017 focused update of the 2016 ACC expert consensus decision pathway on the role of non-statin therapies for LDL-cholesterol lowering in the management of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology Task Force on Expert Consensus Decision Pathways. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70(14):1785-1822.

168. Boden WE, Sidhu MS, Toth PP. The therapeutic role of niacin in dyslipidemia management. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2014;19(2):141-158.

169. Garg A, Sharma A, Krishnamoorthy P, et al. Role of niacin in current clinical practice: a systematic review. Am J Med. 2017;130(2):173-187.

170. Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne N. Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr. 1975;28(9):958-966.

171. Dyerberg J. Coronary heart disease in Greenland Inuit: a paradox. Implications for western diet patterns. Arctic Med Res. 1989;48(2):47-54.

172. Dyerberg J, Bang HO. A hypothesis on the development of acute myocardial infarction in Greenlanders. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1982;161(Suppl):7-13.

173. Bays HE, Tighe AP, Sadovsky R, Davidson MH. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids and their lipid effects: physiologic mechanisms of action and clinical implications. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2008;6(3):391-409.

174. Covington MB. Omega-3 fatty acids. Am Fam Physician. 2004;70(1):133-140.

175. Riediger ND, Othman RA, Suh M, Moghadasian M. A systematic review of the roles of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(4):668-679.

176. Russo GL. Dietary n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: from biochemistry to clinical implications in cardiovascular prevention. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;77(6):937-946.

177. Harris WS, Miller M, Tighe AP, Davidson MH, Schaefer EJ. Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197(1):12-24.

178. Harrison N, Abhyankar B. The mechanism of action of omega-3 fatty acids in secondary prevention of myocardial infarction. Curr Med Res Opin. 2005;21(1):95-100.

179. Davidson MH. Mechanisms for the hypotriglyceridemic effect of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(4A):27i-33i.

180. Psota TL, Gebauer SK, Kris-Etherton P. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake and cardiovascular risk. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(4 Suppl 1):3i-18i.

181. Reiffel JA, McDonald A. Antiarrhythmic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(4A):50-60.

182. Robinson JG, Stone NJ. Antiatherosclerotic and antithrombotic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(4A):39i-49i.

183. von Schacky C, Harris WS. Cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 fatty acids. Cardiovasc Res. 2007;73(2):310-315.

184. Jacobson TA. Secondary prevention of coronary artery disease with omega-3 fatty acids. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(4A):61i-70i.

185. Biscione F, Pignalberi C, Totteri A, Messina F, Altamura G. Cardiovascular effects of omega-3 free fatty acids. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2007;5(2):163-172.

186. Boriani G, Valzania C, Diemberger I, et al. Potential of non-antiarrhythmic drugs to provide an innovative upstream approach to the pharmacological prevention of sudden cardiac death. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2007;16(5):605-623.

187. Cundiff DK, Lanou AJ, Nigg CR. Relation of omega-3 fatty acid intake to other dietary factors known to reduce coronary heart disease risk. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(9):1230-1233.

188. Jain AP Aggarwal KK, Zhang PY. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2015;19(3):441-445.

189. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Product Monograph: Lovaza. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/021654s041lbl.pdf. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

190. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet. 2007;369(9567):1090-1098.

191. Mattar M, Obeid O. Fish oil and the management of hypertriglyceridemia. Nutr Health. 2009;20(1):41-49.

192. Fialkow J. Omega-3 fatty acid formulations in cardiovascular disease: dietary supplements are not substitutes for prescription products. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2016;16(4):229-239.

193. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NDA Approval Letter: Epanova. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2014/205060Orig1s000ltr.pdf. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

194. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Mehra MR, Ventura HO. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(7):585-594.

195. Toth PP, Dayspring TD, Pokrywka GS. Drug therapy for hypertriglyceridemia: fibrates and omega-3 fatty acids. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2009;11(1):71-79.

196. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: What You Need to Know about Mercury in Fish and Shellfish. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170723051703/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm351781.htm. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

197. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Safety: Lovaza (Omega-3-Acid Ethyl Esters) Capsules. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112174505/http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm186892.htm. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

198. Piironen V, Toivo J, Puupponen-Pimia R, Lampi AM. Plant sterols in vegetables, fruits, and berries. J Sci Food Agric. 2003;83(4):330-337.

199. Sanclemente T, Marques-Lopes I, Puzo J, García-Otín AL. Role of naturally-occurring plant sterols on intestinal cholesterol absorption and plasmatic levels. J Physiol Biochem. 2009;65(1):87-98.

200. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, et al. Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation. 2009;119(6):902-907.

201. Jones PJH, AbuMweis SS. Phytosterols as functional food ingredients: linkages to cardiovascular disease and cancer. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009;12(2):147-151.

202. Bays H, Stein EA. Pharmacotherapy for dyslipidaemia-current therapies and future agents. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(11):1901-1938.

203. Bodor ET, Offermanns S. Nicotinic acid: an old drug with a promising future. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;153(Suppl 1):S68-S75.

204. Davidson MH. Novel nonstatin strategies to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2009;11(1):67-70.

205. Stein EA. Other therapies for reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol: medications in development. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2009;38(1):99-119.

206. Ferri N. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9: from the discovery to the development of new therapies for cardiovascular diseases. Scientifica. 2012;2012:1927352.

207. Seiki S, Frishman WH. Pharmacologic inhibition of squalene synthase and other downstream enzymes of the cholesterol synthesis pathway: a new therapeutic approach to treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Cardiol Rev. 2009;17(2):70-76.

208. Stein EA, Bays H, O'Brien D, Pedicano J, Piper E, Spezzi A. Lapaquistat acetate: development of a squalene synthase inhibitor for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Circulation. 2011;123(18):1974-1985.

209. van Heek M, Farley C, Compton DS, et al. Comparison of the activity and disposition of the novel cholesterol absorption inhibitor, SCH58235, and its glucuronide, SCH60663. Br J Pharmacol. 2000;129(8):1748-1754.

210. ClinicalTrials.gov. Available at https://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

211. Samaha FF, McKenney J, Bloedon LT, Sasiela WJ, Rader DJ. Inhibition of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein alone or with ezetimibe in patients with moderate hypercholesterolemia. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2008;5(8):497-505.

212. Liu X, Men P, Wang Y, Zhai S, Zhao Z, Liu G. Efficacy and safety of lomitapide in hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2017;17(4):299-309.

213. Khoury E, Brisson D, Roy N, Tremblay G, Gaudet D. Review of the long-term safety of lomitapide: a microsomal triglycerides transfer protein inhibitor for treating homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2019;18(5):403-414.

214. Kastelein JJ, Wedel MK, Baker BF, et al. Potent reduction of apolipoprotein B and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by short-term administration of an antisense inhibitor of apolipoprotein B. Circulation. 2006;114(16):1729-1735.

215. Canuel M, Sun X, Asselin MC, Paramithiotis E, Prat A, Seidah NG. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) can mediate degradation of the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP-1). PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e64145.

216. Duff CJ, Hooper NM. PCSK9: an emerging target for treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2011;15(2):157-168.

217. Mousavi SA, Berge KE, Leren TP, The unique role of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 in cholesterol homeostatis. J Intern Med. 2009;266(6):507-519.

218. Cameron J, Boqsrud MP, Tveten K, et al. Serum levels of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 in subject with familial hypercholesterolemia indicate that proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 is cleared from plasma by low-density lipoprotein receptor-independent pathways. Transl Res. 2012;160(2):125-130.

219. Lloyd-Jones DM, Morris PB, Ballantyne CM, et al. 2016 ACC expert consensus decision pathway on the role of non-statin therapies for LDL-cholesterol lowering in the management of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;68(1):92-125.

220. Fodor G. Primary prevention of CVD: treating dyslipidaemia. BMJ Clin Evid. 2008;pii:0215.

221. Goff DC Jr, Labarthe DR, Howard G, Russel GB. Primary prevention of high blood cholesterol concentrations in the United States. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(8):913-919.

222. Baigent C, Blackwell L, Emberson J, et al. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet. 2010;376(9753):1670-1681.

223. Collins R, Reith C, Emberson J, et al. Interpretation of the evidence for the efficacy and safety of statin therapy. Lancet. 2016;388(10059):2532-2561.

224. Haskell WL, Alderman EL, Fair JM, et al. Effects of intensive multiple risk factor reduction on coronary atherosclerosis and clinical cardiac events in men and women with coronary artery disease. The Stanford Coronary Risk Intervention Project (SCRIP). Circulation. 1994;89(3):975-990.

225. Fletcher B, Berra K, Ades P, et al. Managing abnormal blood lipids. Circulation. 2005;112(20):3184-3209.

226. DeBusk RF, Miller NH, Superko HR, et al. A case-management system for coronary risk factor modification after acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120(9):721-729.

227. Goff DC, Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Circulation. 2014;129(Suppl 2):S49-S73.

228. Mora S, Wenger NK, Cook NR, et al. Evaluation of the pooled cohort risk equations for cardiovascular risk prediction in a multiethnic cohort from the Women's Health Initiative. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178(9):1231-1240.

229. Stiles S. New AHA/ACC Cholesterol Treatment Guideline Expands Role of LDL Targets. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/904736. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

230. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III): final report. Circulation. 2002;106(25):3143-3421.

231. Pallazola V, Cardoso R, Blumenthal RS, Martin SS. Was the Juice Worth the Squeeze? Understanding the New 2018 AHA/ACC Cholesterol Guideline. Available at https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2018/11/14/10/48/was-the-juice-worth-the-squeeze. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

232. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Use of Drug to Reduce Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Certain Adult Patient Groups. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-use-drug-reduce-risk-cardiovascular-events-certain-adult-patient-groups. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

233. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Nexletol (Bempedoic Acid) Prescribing Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/211616s000lbl.pdf. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

234. Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2022 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2022;145:e153-e639.

235. Michos ED, McEvoy JW, Blumenthal RS. Lipid management for the prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1557-1567.

236. Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74:1376-1414.

237. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Clinical Practice Guidelines: The Management of Dyslipidemia for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction. Available at https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/CD/lipids/VADoDDyslipidemiaCPGProviderSummary5087172020.pdf. Last accessed July 11, 2022.

238. Arnold MJ, O'Malley PG. Key recommendations on managing dyslipidemia for cardiovascular risk reduction: stopping where the evidence does. Am Fam Physician. 2021;103:456-458.

239. Marrs JC, Anderson SL. Bempedoic acid for the treatment of dyslipidemia. Drugs Context. 2020;9:2020-6-5.

240. Schroor MM, Sennels HP, Fahrenkrug J, Jørgensen HL, Plat J, MensinkRP. Diurnal variation of markers for cholesterol synthesis, cholesterol absorption, and bile acid synthesis: a systematic review and the Bispebjerg Study of Diurnal Variations. Nutrients. 2019;11(7):1439.

241. Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, et al. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2022;145(18): e895-e1032.

242. Givertz MM, Colucci WS. Pharmacologic Therapy of Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: Mechanism of Action. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pharmacologic-therapy-of-heart-failure-with-reduced-ejection-fraction-mechanisms-of-action. Last accessed July 26, 2022.

243. McDonald M, Virani S, Chan M, et al. CCS/CHFS heart failure guidelines update: defining a new pharmacologic standard of care for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Can J Cardiol. 2021;37(4):531-546.

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.