Works Cited

Multiple Sclerosis

Course #98593 - $60 -

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

1. Compston A, Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2008;372(9648):1502-1517.

2. Brownlee WJ, Hardy TA, Fazekas F, Miller DH. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: progress and challenges. Lancet. 2017;389:1336-1346.

3. Frohman EM, Racke MK, Raine CS. Multiple sclerosis—the plaque and its pathogenesis. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(9):942-955.

4. Multiple Sclerosis Association of America. Who Gets Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://mymsaa.org/ms-information/overview/who-gets-ms. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

5. Wells S. Cover Story: When Children Have MS. Available at https://mymsaa.org/publications/motivator/fall-07/cover-story. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

6. Koch-Henriksen N, Sørensen PS. The changing demographic pattern of multiple sclerosis epidemiology. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(5):520-532.

7. Wallin MT, Culpepper WJ, Campbell JD, et al. The prevalence of MS in the United States. Neurology. 2019;92(10):e1029-e1040.

8. Alonso A, Hernan MA. Temporal trends in the incidence of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Neurology. 2008;71(2):129-135.

9. Dunn SE, Steinman L. The gender gap in multiple sclerosis: intersection of science and society. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70(5):634-635.

10. Hafler DA, Compston A, Sawcer S, et al. Risk alleles for multiple sclerosis identified by a genome-wide study. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(9):851-862.

11. Sawcer S, Hellenthal G, Pirenen M, et al. Genetic risk and a primary role for cell-mediated immune mechanisms in multiple sclerosis. Nature. 2011;476(7359):214-219.

12. Ebers GC. Environmental factors and multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(3):268-277.

13. Dyment DA, Ebers GC, Sadovnick AD. Genetics of multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(92):104-110.

14. Compston A, Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2002;359(9313):1221-1231.

15. Parnell GP, Booth DR. The multiple sclerosis (MS) genetic risk factors indicate both acquired and innate immune cell subsets contribute to MS pathogenesis and identify novel therapeutic opportunities. Front Immunol. 2017;8:425.

16. Alonso A, Hernán MA. Temporal trends in the incidence of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Neurology. 2008;71(2):129-135.

17. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Viruses. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/What-Causes-MS/Viruses. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

18. Marrie RA. Environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis aetiology. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(12):709-718.

19. Ascherio A, Munger KL. Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis: from risk factors to prevention – an update. Semin Neurol. 2016;36: 103-114.

20. Ascherio A, Munger KL, Simon KC. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(6):599-612.

21. Wingerchuk DM. Smoking: effects on multiple sclerosis susceptibility and disease progression. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2012;5(1):13-22.

22. Ascherio A, Munger KL. Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Part I: the role of infection. Ann Neurol. 2007;61(4): 288-299.

23. Sriram S, Yao SY, Stratton C, Moses H, Narayana PA, Wolinsky JS. Pilot study to examine the effect of antibiotic therapy on MRI outcomes in RRMS. J Neurol Sci. 2005;234(1-2):87-91.

24. Pender MP. Does Epstein-Barr virus infection in the brain drive the development of multiple sclerosis? Brain. 2009;132(Pt 12):3196-3198.

25. Bagert BA. Epstein-Barr virus in multiple sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2009;9(5):405-410.

26. Levin LI, Munger KL, O'Reilly EJ, Falk KI, Ascherio A. Primary infection with the Epstein-Barr virus and risk of multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2010;67(6):824-830.

27. Cusick MF, Libbey JE, Fuginami RJ. Multiple sclerosis: autoimmunity and viruses. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2013;25(4):496-501.

28. Hedstrom AK, Olsson T, Alfredsson L. Body mass index during adolescence, rather than childhood, is critical in determining MS risk. Mult Scler. 2016;22:878-883.

29. Weiner H. Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory T-cell-mediated disorder. Arch Neurol. 2004;61(10):1613-1615.

30. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. What Causes MS? Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/What-Causes-MS#section-4. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

31. Korn T. Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2008;255(Suppl 6):2-6.

32. Lucchinetti C Bruck W Parisi J, et al. Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis lesions: implications for the pathogenesis of demyelination. Ann Neurol. 2000;47:407-417.

33. Frohman TC, O'Donoghue DL, Northrop D (eds). Multiple Sclerosis for the Physician Assistant: A Practical Primer. New York, NY: National Multiple Sclerosis Society; 2011.

34. Michel L, Touil H, Pikor NB, et al. B cells in the multiple sclerosis central nervous system: trafficking and contribution to CNS-compartmentalized inflammation. Front Immunol. 2015;6:636.

35. Bakshi R. Fatigue associated with multiple sclerosis: diagnosis, impact and management. Mult Scler. 2003;9(3):219-227.

36. Davis SL, Frohman TC, Crandall CG, et al. Modeling Uhthoff's phenomenon in MS patients with internuclear ophthalmoparesis. Neurology. 2008;70(13 Pt 2):1098-1106.

37. Humm AM, Beer S, Kool J, et al. Quantification of Uhthoff's phenomenon in multiple sclerosis: a magnetic stimulation study. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115(11):2493-2501.

38. Frohman TC, Davis SL, Beh S, Greenberg BM, Remington G, Frohman EM. Uhthoff's phenomena in MS—clinical features and pathophysiology. Nat Rev Neurol. 2013;9(9):535-540.

39. Foley PL, Vesterinen HM, Laird BJ, et al. Prevalence and natural history of pain in adults with multiple sclerosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain. 2013;154(5):632-642.

40. Marrie RA, Cutter G, Tyry T. Substantial burden of dizziness in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2013;2(1):21-28.

41. Piwko C, Desjardins OB, Bereza BG, et al. Pain due to multiple sclerosis: analysis of the prevalence and economic burden in Canada. Pain Res Manag. 2007;12(4):259-265.

42. Braley TJ, Kratz AL, Kaplish N, Chervin RD. Sleep and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis. Sleep. 2016;39(8):1525-1533.

43. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Vision Problems. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis/MS-Symptoms/Vision-Problems. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

44. Balcer LJ. Clinical practice: optic neuritis. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(12):1273-1280.

45. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Sexual Problems. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis/MS-Symptoms/Sexual-Dysfunction. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

46. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Symptoms and Diagnosis. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

47. Lublin FD, Reingold SC. Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: results of an international survey. Neurology. 1996;46(4):907-911.

48. Lubin FD, Reingold SC, Cohen JA, et al. Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: the 2013 revisions. Neurology. 2014;83:278-286.

49. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Types of MS. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Types-of-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

50. Comi G, Martinelli V, Rodegher M, et al. Effect of glatiramer acetate on conversion to clinically definite multiple sclerosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome (PreCISe study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374:1503-1511.

51. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Relapsing-Remitting MS (RRMS). Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Types-of-MS/Relapsing-remitting-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

52. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Secondary Progressive MS (SPMS). Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Types-of-MS/Secondary-progressive-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

53. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Treating PPMS. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Types-of-MS/Primary-progressive-MS/Treating-Primary-Progressive-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

54. Antel J, Antel S, Caramanos Z, Arnold DL, Kuhlmann T. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis: part of the MS disease spectrum or separate disease entity? Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123(5):627-638.

55. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Neurology and Neurosurgery. Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/neurology_neurosurgery/centers_clinics/multiple_sclerosis/conditions. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

56. Renoux C, Vukusic S, Mikaeloff Y, et al. Natural history of multiple sclerosis with childhood onset. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(25):2603-2613.

57. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. How MS is Diagnosed. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis/Diagnosing-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

58. Polman CH, Reingold SC, Banwell B, et al. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria.Ann Neurol. 2011;69(2):292-302.

59. Rashid W, Miller DH. Recent advances in neuroimaging of multiple sclerosis. Semin Neurol. 2008;28(1):46-55.

60. Consortium of MS Centers MRI Protocol for the Diagnosis and Follow-up of MS. 2018 Revised Guidelines. Available at https://cdn.ymaws.com/mscare.site-ym.com/resource/collection/9C5F19B9-3489-48B0-A54B-623A1ECEE07B/2018MRIGuidelines_booklet_with_final_changes_0522.pdf. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

61. Wattjes MP, Ciccarelli O, Reich DS, et al. 2021 MAGNIMS_CMSC-NAIMS consensus recommendations on the use of MRI in patients with multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2021;20(8):653-670.

62. Polak P, Magnano C, Zivadinov R, Poloni G. 3D FLAIRED: 3D fluid attenuated inversion recovery for enhanced detection of lesions in multiple sclerosis. Magn Reson Med. 2012;68(3):874-881.

63. Gramsch C, Nensa F, Kastrup O, et al. Diagnostic value of 3D fluid attenuated inversion recovery sequence in multiple sclerosis. Acta Radiol. 2015;56(5):622-627.

64. Neema M, Stankiewicz J, Arora A, Guss ZD, Bakshi R. MRI in multiple sclerosis: what's inside the toolbox? Neurotherapeutics. 2007;4:602-617.

65. Sicotte NL, Voskuhl RR, Bouvier S, Klutch R, Cohen MS, Mazziotta JC. Comparison of multiple sclerosis lesions at 1.5 and 3.0 Tesla. Invest Radiol. 2003;38:423-427.

66. Kangarlu A, Bourekas EC, Ray-Chaudhury A, Rammohan KW. Cerebral cortical lesions in multiple sclerosis detected by MR imaging at 8 Tesla. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28:262-266.

67. Li DK, Held U, Petkau J, et al. MRI T2 lesion burden in multiple sclerosis: a plateauing relationship with clinical disability. Neurology. 2006;66(9):1384-1389.

68. Atlas SW (ed). Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain and Spine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2016.

69. Neema M, Stankiewicz J, Arora A, Guss ZD, Bakshi R. MRI in multiple sclerosis: what's inside the toolbox? Neurotherapeutics. 2007;4(4):602-617.

70. Pirko I, Lucchinetti CF, Sriram S, Bakshi R. Gray matter involvement in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2007;68:634-642.

71. Miller DH, Thompson AJ, Filippi M. Magnetic resonance studies of abnormalities in the normal appearing white matter and grey matter in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2003;250:1407-1419.

72. Meier D, Weiner HL, Guttmann CRG. MR imaging intensity modeling of damage and repair in multiple sclerosis: relationship of short-term lesion recovery to progression and disability. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28:1956-1963.

73. Duan Y, Hildenbrand PG, Sampat MP, et al. Segmentation of subtraction images for measurement of lesion change in multiple sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008;29:340-346.

74. Prinster A, Quarantelli M, Orefice G, et al. Grey matter loss in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a voxel-based morphometry study. Neuroimage. 2006;29:859-867.

75. Morgen K, Sammer G, Courtney SM, et al. Evidence for a direct association between cortical atrophy and cognitive impairment in relapsing-remitting MS. Neuroimage. 2006;30:891-898.

76. Lansley J, Mataix-Cols D, Grau M, Radua J, Sastre-Garriga J. Localized grey matter atrophy in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies and associations with functional disability. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;37(5):819-830.

77. Dousset V, Brochet B, Deloire MS, et al. MR imaging of relapsing multiple sclerosis patients using ultra-small-particle iron oxide and compared with gadolinium. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:1000-1005.

78. Vellinga MM, Oude Engberink RD, Seewann A, et al. Pluriformity of inflammation in multiple sclerosis shown by ultra-small iron oxide particle enhancement. Brain. 2008;131:800-807.

79. Wessig C, Bendszus M, Stoll G. In vivo visualization of focal demyelination in peripheral nerves by gadofluorine M-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Exp Neurol. 2007;204:14-19.

80. Filippi M, Rocca MA. Magnetization transfer magnetic resonance imaging of the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerve. Neurotherapeutics. 2007;4:401-413.

81. Bodurka J, Bandettini PA. Toward direct mapping of neuronal activity: MRI detection of ultraweak, transient magnetic fields changes. Magn Reson Med. 2002;47:1052-1058.

82. Truong TK, Song AW. Finding neuroelectric activity under magnetic-field oscillations (NAMO) with magnetic resonance imaging in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:12598-12601.

83. Hori M, Maekawa T, Kamiya K, et al. Advanced diffusion MRI for multiple sclerosis in the brain and spinal cord. Magn Reson Med Sci. 2022;21(1):58-70.

84. Vavasour IM, Sun P, Graf C, et al. Characterization of multiple sclerosis neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration with relaxation and diffusion basis spectrum imaging. Mult Scler. 2022;28(3):418-428.

85. Sahin S, Cam I, Ozturk O, Efendi H, Anik Y, Gundogdu O. White matter evaluation in multiple sclerosis through magnetic resonance kurtosis imaging. Cureus. 2019;11(12):e6424.

86. Oh J, Han ET, Lee MC, Nelson SJ, Pelletier D. Multislice brain myelin water fractions at 3T in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimaging. 2007;17:156-163.

87. Laule C, Vavasour IM, Moore GR, et al. Water content and myelin water fraction in multiple sclerosis: a T2 relaxation study.J Neurol. 2004;251:284-293.

88. Jenkins T, Ciccarelli O, Toosy A, et al. Dissecting structure-function interactions in acute optic neuritis to investigate neuroplasticity. Hum Brain Mapp. 2010;31(2):276-286.

89. Hickman SJ, Toosy AT, Jones SJ, et al. Serial magnetization transfer imaging in acute optic neuritis. Brain. 2004;127:692-700.

90. Frohman E, Costello F, Zivadinov R, et al. Optical coherence tomography in multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5:853-863.

91. Britze J, Frederiksen JL. Optical coherence tomography in multiple sclerosis. Eye (Lond). 2018;32(5):884-888.

92. Link H, Huang YM. Oligoclonal bands in multiple sclerosis cerebrospinal fluid: an update on methodology and clinical usefulness.J Neuroimmunol. 2006;180(1-2):17-28.

93. Stangel M, Fredrikson S, Meinl E, Petzold A, Stüve O, Tumani H. The utility of cerebrospinal fluid analysis in patients with multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2013;9(5):267-276.

94. Magliozzi R, Cross AH. Can CSF biomarkers predict future MS disease activity and severity? Mult Scler. 2020;26(5):582-590.

95. Thompson AJ, Banwell BL, Barkhof F, et al. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2018;17(2):162-173.

96. Rolak LA, Fleming JO. The differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. The Neurologist. 2007;13:57-72.

97. Solomon AJ, Bourdette DN, Cross AH, et al. The contemporary spectrum of multiple sclerosis misdiagnosis: a multicenter study. Neurology. 2016;87(13):1393-1399.

98. Sellebjerg F, Barnes D, Filippini G, et al. EFNS guideline on treatment of multiple sclerosis relapses: report of an EFNS task force on treatment of multiple sclerosis relapses. Eur J Neurol. 2005;12(12):939-946.

99. Goodin DS, Frohman EM, Garmany GP, et al. Disease modifying therapies in multiple sclerosis: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the MS Council for Clinical Practice Guidelines. Neurology. 2002;58(2):169-178.

100. MedlinePlus. Methylprednisolone. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682795.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

101. MedlinePlus. Methylprednisolone Injection. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a601157.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

102. Rejdak K, Jackson S, Giavonnoni G. Multiple sclerosis: a practical overview for clinicians. Br Med Bull. 2010;95:79-104.

103. Dovio A, Perazzolo L, Osella G, et al. Immediate fall of bone formation and transient increase of bone resorption in the course of high-dose, short-term glucocorticoid therapy in young patients with multiple sclerosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(10):4923-4928.

104. Uttner I, Müller S, Zinser C, et al. Reversible impaired memory induced by pulsed methylprednisolone in patients with MS. Neurology. 2005;64(11):1971-1973.

105. Filippini G, Brusaferri F, Sibley WA, et al. Corticosteroids or ACTH for acute exacerbations in multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev. 2000;(4):CD001331.

106. Elovaara I, Apostolski S, van Doorn P, et al. EFNS guidelines for the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of neurological diseases: EFNS task force on the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of neurological diseases. Eur J Neurol. 2008;15:893-908.

107. Weinshenker BG, O'Brien PC, Petterson TM, et al. A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease. Ann Neurol. 1999;46(6):878-886.

108. MedlinePlus. Interferon Beta-1a Intramuscular Injection. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a693040.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

109. MedlinePlus. Interferon Beta-1a Subcutaneous Injection. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a604005.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

110. MedlinePlus. Interferon Beta-1b Injection. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a601151.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

111. Ruggieri M, Avolio C, Livrea P, Trojano M. Glatiramer acetate in multiple sclerosis: a review. CNS Drug Rev. 2007;13(2):178-191.

112. La Mantia L, Munari LM, Lovati R. Glatiramer acetate for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(5):CD004678.

113. Rice GP, Incorvaia B, Munari L, et al. Interferon in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(4):CD002002.

114. Boneschi FM, Vacchi L, Rovaris M, Capra R, Comi G. Mitoxantrone for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013(5):CD002127.

115. Multiple Sclerosis Association of America. Long-Term Treatments for MS. Available at https://mymsaa.org/ms-information/treatments/long-term. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

116. Fernández O, Fernández V, Mayorga C, et al. HLA class II and response to interferon-beta in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2005;112(6):391-394.

117. Bertolotto A, Gilli F. Interferon-beta responders and non-responders: a biological approach. Neurol Sci. 2008;29(Suppl 2):S216-S217.

118. LexiComp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com/lco/action/home. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

119. Gonsette RE. Compared benefit of approved and experimental immunosuppressive therapeutic approaches in multiple sclerosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007;8(8):1103-1116.

120. Murray TJ. The cardiac effects of mitoxantrone: do the benefits in multiple sclerosis outweigh the risks? Expert Opin Drug Safety. 2006;5(2):265-274.

121. Goodin DS, Arnason BG, Coyle PK, et al. The use of mitoxantrone (Novantrone) for the treatment of multiple sclerosis: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2003;61(10):1332-1338.

122. Buttinelli C, Clemenzi A, Borriello G, Denaro F, Pozzilli C, Fieschi C. Mitoxantrone treatment in multiple sclerosis: a 5-year clinical and MRI follow-up. Euro J Neurol. 2007;14(11):1281-1287.

123. Boster A, Edan G, Frohman E, et al. Intense immunosuppression in patients with rapidly worsening multiple sclerosis: treatment guidelines for the clinician. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(2):173-183.

124. Fox E. Management of worsening multiple sclerosis with mitoxantrone: a review. Clin Ther. 2006;28(4):461-474.

125. Medline Plus. Natalizumab Injection. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a605006.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

126. Johnson KP. Control of multiple sclerosis relapses with immunomodulating agents. J Neurol Sci. 2007;256(Suppl 1):S23-S28.

127. Herbert J, Kappos L, Calabresi P, et al. Natalizumab Reduces Multiple Sclerosis Severity: Analysis of Patients from the AFFIRM and SENTINEL Studies using the Multiple Sclerosis Severity Scale. Paper presented at: 6th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Neurology; Chicago, IL; April 12–19, 2008.

128. Polman CH, O'Connor PW, Havrdova E, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of natalizumab for relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(9):899-910.

129. Miller DH, Soon D, Fernando KT, et al. MRI outcomes in a placebo-controlled trial of natalizumab in relapsing MS. Neurology. 2007;68(17):1390-1401.

130. Goodin DS, Cohen BA, O'Connor P, et al. Assessment: the use of natalizumab (Tysabri) for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (an evidence-based review): report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2008;71(10):766-773.

131. Natalizumab: new drug. Multiple sclerosis: risky market approval. Prescrire Int. 2008;17(93):7-10.

132. Hauser SL, Bar-Or A, Comi G, et al. Ocrelizumab versus interferon beta-1a in relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(3):221-234.

133. Montalban X, Hauser SL, Kappos L, et al. Ocrelizumab versus placebo in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:209-220.

134. Multiple Sclerosis Association of America. FDA Approves Kesimpta (Ofatumumab), the First Self-Administered B-cell Therapy for Relapsing Forms of MS. Available at https://mymsaa.org/news/fda-approves-ofatumumab-the-first-self-administered-b-cell-therapy-for-relapsing-forms-of-ms. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

135. Drugs.com. Gilenya. Available at https://www.drugs.com/gilenya.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

136. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Oral Drug to Reduce MS Relapses. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112215632/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2010/ucm226755.htm. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

137. Cohen J, Barkhof F, Comi G, et al. Oral fingolimod or intramuscular interferon for relapsing multiple sclerosis. NEJM. 2010;362:402-415.

138. Novartis. Efficacy and Safety of Fingolimod in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00289978. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

139. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves Bristol Myers Squibb's ZEPOSIA (ozanimod), a New Oral Treatment for Relapsing Forms of Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://www.chemdiv.com/company/media/pharma-news/2020/u-s-food-and-drug-administration-approves-bristol-myers-squibbs-zeposia-ozanimod-a-new-oral-treatment-for-relapsing-forms-of-multiple-sclerosis/. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

140. Lassiter G, Melancon C, Rooney T, et al. Ozanimod to treat relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive review of disease, drug efficacy, and side effects. Neurol Int. 2020;12(3):89-108.

141. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves New Multiple Sclerosis Treatment: Tecfidera. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023900/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm345528.htm. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

142. Medical News Today. Investigational Oral Multiple Sclerosis Therapy Teriflunomide (Aubagio) Significantly Reduced Relapse Rate and Disability Progression. Available at https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/mnt/releases/235702#1. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

143. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves New Oral Treatment for Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-oral-treatment-multiple-sclerosis. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

144. Muraro PA, Martin R, Mancardi GL, et al. Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for treatment of multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13:391-405.

145. Bose G, Freedman MS. Recent advances and remaining questions of autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2021;421:117324.

146. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Fatigue. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis/MS-Symptoms/Fatigue. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

147. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Modified Fatigue Impact Scale. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/For-Professionals/Researchers/Resources-for-MS-Researchers/Research-Tools/Clinical-Study-Measures/Modified-Fatigue-Impact-Scale-(MFIS). Last accessed December 2, 2022.

148. The Consortium of Multiple Sclerosis Centers Health Services Research Subcommittee. Multiple Sclerosis Quality of Life Inventory: A User's Manual. Available at https://nms2cdn.azureedge.net/cmssite/nationalmssociety/media/msnationalfiles/brochures/msqli_-a-user-s-manual.pdf. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

149. Dunmore FR. Fatigue in multiple sclerosis: an overview of assessment and pharmacologic treatment. Adv NPs PAs. 2013;4(4):23-25, 32.

150. Bohannon RW, Smith MB. Interrater reliability of a Modified Ashworth Scale of Muscle Spasticity. Phys Ther. 1987;67:206-207.

151. Meseguer-Henarejos AB, Sánchez-Meca J, López-Pina JA, Carles-Hernández R. Inter- and intra-rater reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2018;54(4):576-590.

152. Rekand T, Grønning M. Treatment of spasticity related to multiple sclerosis with intrathecal baclofen: a long-term follow-up.J Rehabil Med. 2011;43(6):511-514.

153. Habek M, Karni A, Balash Y, Gurevich T. The place of the botulinum toxin in the management of multiple sclerosis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112(7):592-596.

154. Moccia M, Frau J, Carotenuto A, et al. Botulinum toxin for the management of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: the Italian botulinum toxin network study. Neurol Sci. 2020;41(10):2781-2792.

155. Dressler D, Bhidayasiri R, Bohlega S, et al. Botulinum toxin therapy for treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: review and recommendations of the IAB-Interdisciplinary Working Group for Movement Disorders task force. J Neurol. 2017;264(1):112-120.

156. Sartori A, Dinoto A, Stragapede L, et al. Nabiximols and botulinum toxin injections for patients with multiple sclerosis: efficacy on spasticity and spasms in a single-centre experience. Neurol Sci. 2021;42(12):5037-5043.

157. Frohman TC, Castro W, Shah A, et al. Symptomatic therapy in multiple sclerosis. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2011;4(2):83-98.

158. Feinstein A. Multiple sclerosis and depression. Mult Scler. 2011;17(11):1276-1281.

159. de Sa JCC, Airas L, Bartholome E, et al. Symptomatic therapy in multiple sclerosis: a review for a multimodal approach in clinical practice. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2011;4(3):139-168.

160. Zorzon M, Zivadinov R, Bosco A, et al. Sexual dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. I. Frequency and comparison of groups. Mult Scler. 1999;5(6):418-427.

161. Robertson D, Aungst A, Collier R, et al. Patient perceived changes in sexual dysfunction after initiation of natalizumab for multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler J Exp Transl Clin. 2018;4(2):2055217318781989.

162. Kessler TM, Fowler CJ, Panicker JN. Sexual dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(3):341-350.

163. Calcagno P, Ruoppolo G, Grasso MG, De Vincentiis M, Paolucci S. Dysphagia in multiple sclerosis: prevalence and prognostic factors. Acta Neurol Scand. 2002;105(1):40-43.

164. Hartelius L, Runmarker B, Anderson O. Prevalence and characteristics of dysarthria in a multiple sclerosis incidence cohort: in relation to neurological data. Folia Phoniatr Logop. 2000;52:160-177.

165. Kerns RD, Kassirer M, Otis J. Pain in multiple sclerosis: a biopsychosocial perspective. J Rehabili Res Dev. 2002;39(2):225-232.

166. MedlinePlus. Carbamazepine. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682237.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

167. MedlinePlus. Phenytoin. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682022.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

168. MedlinePlus. Clonazepam. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682279.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

169. MedlinePlus. Amitriptyline. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682388.html. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

170. Kesselring J, Beer S. Symptomatic therapy and neurorehabilitation in multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(10):643-652.

171. Beer S, Khan F, Kesselring J. Rehabilitation interventions in multiple sclerosis: an overview. J Neurol. 2012;259(9):1994-2008.

172. Turner-Stokes L, Pick A, Nair A, Disler PB, Wade DT. Multi-disciplinary rehabilitation for acquired brain injury in adults of working age. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(12):CD004170.

173. Kesselring J. Neurorehabilitation in multiple sclerosis: what is the evidence-base? J Neurol. 2004;251(4 Supplement):iv25-iv29.

174. Khan F, Turner-Stokes L, Ng L, Kilpatrick T. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for adults with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008;79(2):114.

175. Khan F, Turner-Stokes L, Ng L, Kilpatrick T. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for adults with multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(2):CD006036.

176. Heesen C, Romberg A, Gold S, Schulz KH. Physical exercise in multiple sclerosis: supportive care or a putative disease-modifying treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2006;6(3):347-355.

177. Rietberg MB, Brooks D, Uitdehaag BM, Kwakkel G. Exercise therapy for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(1):CD003980.

178. Benedict RH, Bobholz JH. Multiple sclerosis. Semin Neurol. 2007;27(1):78-85.

179. Ghaffar O, Feinstein A. The neuropsychiatry of multiple sclerosis: a review of recent developments. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007;20(3):278-285.

180. Gallien P, Nicolas B, Robineau S, Pétrilli S, Houedakor J, Durufle A. Physical training and multiple sclerosis. Ann Readapt Med Phys. 2007;50(6):373-376, 369-372.

181. Rietberg MB, Brooks D, Uitdehaag BMJ, Kwakkel G. Exercise therapy for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(1):CD003980.

182. Thomas PW, Thomas S, Hillier C, Galvin K, Baker R. Psychological interventions for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(1):CD004431.

183. Sacco R, Bussman R, Oesch P, Kesselring J, Beer S. Assessment of gait parameters and fatigue in MS patients during inpatient rehabilitation: a pilot trial. J Neurol. 2011;258(5):889-894.

184. Vaney C, Gattlen B, Lugon-Moulin V, et al. Robotic-assisted step training (Lokomat) not superior to equal intensity of over-ground rehabilitation in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2012;26(3):212-221.

185. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Authorizes Marketing of Device to Improve Gait in Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-authorizes-marketing-device-improve-gait-multiple-sclerosis-patients. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

186. Jacobs LD, Beck RW, Simon JH, et al. Intramuscular interferon beta-1a therapy initiated during a first demyelinating event in multiple sclerosis. CHAMPS Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(13):898-904.

187. Comi G, Filippi M, Barkhof F, et al. Effect of early interferon treatment on conversion to definite multiple sclerosis: a randomised study. Lancet. 2001;357(9268):1576-1582.

188. Kappos L, Freedman MS, Polman CH, et al. Effect of early versus delayed interferon beta-1b treatment on disability after a first clinical event suggestive of multiple sclerosis: a 3-year follow-up analysis of the BENEFIT study. Lancet. 2007;370(9585):389-397.

189. Olek MJ, Mowry E. Disease-Modifying Treatment of Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis in Adults. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/disease-modifying-treatment-of-relapsing-remitting-multiple-sclerosis-in-adults. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

190. Olak MJ, Mowry E. Treatment of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis in Adults. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-progressive-multiple-sclerosis-in-adults. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

191. Martinelli Boneschi F, Vacchi L, Rovaris M, Capra R, Comi G. Mitoxantrone for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;5:CD002127.

192. Zrzavy T, Daniels E, Stuka N, et al. Rituximab versus mitoxantrone: comparing effectiveness and safety in advanced relapsing multiple sclerosis. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2021;12: 20406223211024366.

193. McCormack PL, Scott LJ. Interferon-beta-1b: a review of its use in relapsing-remitting and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs. 2004;18(8):521-546.

194. Sørensen PS, Deisenhammer F, Duda P, et al. Guidelines on use of anti-IFN-beta antibody measurements in multiple sclerosis: report of an EFNS Task Force on IFN-beta antibodies in multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol. 2005;12(11):817-827.

195. MedlinePlus. Riluzole. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a696013.html. Last accessed at December 2, 2022.

196. de Araújo EA, de Freitas MR. Benefit with methylprednisolone in continuous pulse therapy in progressive primary form of multiple sclerosis: study of 11 cases in 11 years. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2008;66(2B):350-353.

197. Killestein J, Kalkers NF, Polman CH. Glutamate inhibition in MS: the neuroprotective properties of riluzole. J Neurol Sci. 2005;233(1-2):113-115.

198. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Disease Courses. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/For-Professionals/Clinical-Care/About-MS/Disease-Courses. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

199. Namaka M, Crook A, Doupe A, et al. Examining the evidence: complementary adjunctive therapies for multiple sclerosis. Neurol Res. 2008;30(7):710-719.

200. Kes VB, Cesarik M, Matovina LZ, et al. The role of complementary and alternative medicine in therapy of multiple sclerosis. Acta Clin Croat. 2013;52(4):464-471.

201. Simon KC, Munger KL, Ascherio A. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis: epidemiology, immunology, and genetics. Curr Opin Neurol. 2012;25(3):246-251.

202. Susman E. Higher Vitamin D Levels Linked to Less MS Activity. Available at https://www.medpagetoday.org/meetingcoverage/ectrims/42036. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

203. Stein MS, Liu Y, Gray OM, et al. A randomized trial of high-dose vitamin D2 in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2011;77:1611-1618.

204. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Early Reports from ECTRIMS Suggest Vitamin D Supplements Do Not Reduce Ongoing MS Disease Activity. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/About-the-Society/News/Early-Reports-from-ECTRIMS-Suggest-Vitamin-D-Suppl. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

205. MS Research Advocacy Cure. World First Clinical Trial Finds Vitamin D Supplements Do Not Prevent the Development of MS. Available at https://www.msaustralia.org.au/news/world-first-clinical-trial-vitamin-d-supplements-do-not-prevent-the-development-of-ms/. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

206. Torkildsen O, Wergeland S, Bakke S, et al. ω-3 fatty acid treatment in multiple sclerosis (OFAMS Study): a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Neurol. 2012;69(8):1044-1051.

207. Farinotti M, Vacchi L, Simi S, Di Pietrantonj C, Brait L, Fillippini G. Dietary interventions for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012(12):CD004192.

208. Chong MS, Wolff K, Wise K, Tanton C, Winstock A, Silber E. Cannabis use in patients with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2006;12(5):646-651.

209. Zajicek JP, Sanders HP, Wright DE, et al. Cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis (CAMS) study: safety and efficacy data for 12 months follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr. 2005;76(12):1664-1669.

210. Baker D, Pryce G, Jackson SJ, Bolton C, Giovannoni G. The biology that underpins the therapeutic potential of cannabis-based medicines for the control of spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2012;1(2):64-75.

211. Honarmand K, Tierney MC, O'Connor P, Feinstein A. Effects of cannabis on cognitive function in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2011;76(13):1153-1160.

212. Ribeiro R, Yu F, Wen J, Vana A, Zhang Y. Therapeutic potential of a novel cannabinoid agent CB52 in the mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Neuroscience. 2013;254:427-442.

213. Bodendiek SB, Mahieux C, Hänsel W, Wulff H. 4-Phenoxybutoxy-substituted heterocycles: a structure-activity relationship study of blockers of the lymphocyte potassium channel Kv1.3. Eur J Med Chem. 2008;44(5):1838-1852.

214. Namaka M, Crook A, Doupe A, et al. Examining the evidence: complementary adjunctive therapies for multiple sclerosis. Neurol Res. 2008;30(7):710-719.

215. Bennett M, Heard R. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD003057.

216. Oztaş B, Kiliç S, Dural E, Ispir T. Influence of antioxidants on the blood-brain barrier permeability during epileptic seizures.J Neurosci Res. 2001;66(4):674-678.

217. Koch M, De Keyser J. Uric acid in multiple sclerosis. Neurol Res. 2006;28(3):316-319.

218. Fetisova E, Chernyak B, Korshunova G, Muntyan M, Skulachev V. Mitochondria-targeted antioxidants as a prospective therapeutic strategy for multiple sclerosis. Curr Med Chem. 2017;24(19):2086-2114.

219. Fetisova E, Muntyan MS, Lyamzaev KG, Cherynak BV. Therapeutic effect of the mitrochondria-targeted antioxidant SkQ1 on the culture model of multiple sclerosis. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2019;1:2019.

220. Correale J, Farez M. Association between parasite infection and immune responses in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2007;61(2):97-108.

221. Fleming JO, Isaak A, Lee J, et al. Probiotic helminth administration in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a phase 1 study. Mult Scler J. 2011;17(6):1-12.

222. Oken BS, Kishiyama S, Zajdel D, et al. Randomized controlled trial of yoga and exercise in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2004;62(11):2058-2064.

223. Quispe-Cabanillas JG, Damasceno A, von Glehn F, et al. Impact of electroacupuncture on quality of life for patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis under treatment with immunomodulators: a randomized study. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012;12:209.

224. Coles AJ, Fox E, Vladic A, et al. Alemtuzumab versus interferon ß-1a in early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: post-hoc and subset analyses of clinical efficacy outcomes. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(4):338-348.

225. Avasarala J. DRESS syndrome and daclizumab failure – were potentially dangerous signs missed in clinical trials? Drug Target Insights. 2018;12:1177392818785136.

226. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Working with Manufacturers to Withdraw Zinbryta from the Market in the United States. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-working-manufacturers-withdraw-zinbryta-market-united-states. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

227. Opexa Therapeutics. TERMS Phase 2b Overview. Available at http://www.opexatherapeutics.com/tcelna/terms-phase-2b-overview/default.aspx. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

228. BioSpace. Opexa Therapeutics Completes Successful Meetings with FDA to Pursue Phase 3 Clinical Study for Tovaxin in Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://www.biospace.com/article/releases/opexa-therapeutics-completes-successful-meetings-with-fda-to-pursue-phase-3-clinical-study-for-tovaxin-r-in-multiple-sclerosis-/. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

229. Sapko K, Jamroz-Wisniewska A, ejdak K. Novel drugs in a pipeline for progressive multiple sclerosis. J Clin Med. 2022;11(12):3342.

230. Carvalho T. Ibudilast for Multiple Sclerosis. Available at https://multiplesclerosisnewstoday.com/ibudilast-mn-166-multiple-sclerosis/. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

231. Vermersch P, Brieva-Ruiz, L, Fox RJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of masitinib in progressive forms of multiple sclerosis: a randomized, phase 3, clinical trial. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2022;9(3):e1148.

232. Cadavid D, Mellion M, Hupperts R, et al. Safet and efficacy of opicinumab in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (SYNERGY): a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(9):845-856.

233. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Who Gets Multiple Sclerosis? Epidemiology of MS. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Who-Gets-MS. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

234. Weinshenker BG. Natural history of multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 1994;36(Suppl):S6-S11.

235. Tremlett H, Paty D, Devonshire V. Disability progression in multiple sclerosis is slower than previously reported. Neurology. 2006;66(2):172-177.

236. Wallin MT, Culpepper WJ, Campbell JD, et al. The prevalence of MS in the United States: a population-based estimate using health claims data. Neurology. 2019;92(10):e1029-e1040.

237. Confavreux C, Vukusic S. Age at disability milestones in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 3):595-605.

238. Confavreux C, Vukusic S. Natural history of multiple sclerosis: a unifying concept. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 3):606-616.

239. Confavreux C, Vukusic S, Moreau T, Adeleine P. Relapses and progression of disability in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(20):1430-1438.

240. Kremenchutzky M, Rice GP, Baskerville J, et al. The natural history of multiple sclerosis: a geographically based study 9: observations on the progressive phase of the disease. Brain. 2006;129(3):584-594.

241. Langer-Gould A, Popat RA, Huang SM, et al. Clinical and demographic predictors of long-term disability in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(12):1686-1691.

242. Confavreux C, Vukusic S, Adeleine P. Early clinical predictors and progression of irreversible disability in multiple sclerosis: an amnesic process. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 4):770-782.

243. Zhang Y, Cofield S, Cutter G, Krieger S, Wolinsky JS, Lublin F. Predictors of disease activity and worsening in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Neurol Clin Pract. 2022;12(4):e58-e65.

244. Brex PA, Ciccarelli O, O'Riordan JI, et al. A longitudinal study of abnormalities on MRI and disability from multiple sclerosis.N Engl J Med. 2002;346:158-164.

245. Li DK, Held U, Petkau J, et al. MRI T2 lesion burden in multiple sclerosis: a plateauing relationship with clinical disability. Neurology. 2006;66(9):1384-1389.

246. Mohr DC, Hart SL, Julian L, et al. Association between stressful life events and exacerbation in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. BMJ. 2004;328:731.

247. Buljevac D, Hop WC, Reedeker W, et al. Self-reported stressful life events and exacerbations in multiple sclerosis: prospective study. BMJ. 2003;327:646.

248. Brasanac J, Hetzer S, Asseyer S, et al. Central stress processing, T-cell responsivity to stress hormones and disease severity in multiple sclerosis. Brain Commun. 2022;4(2):fcac086.

249. Mohr DC, Lovera J, Brown T, et al. A randomized trial of stress management for the prevention of new brain lesions in MS. Neurology. 2012;79(5):412-419.

250. Ghezzi A and Zaffaroni M. Female-specific issues in multiple sclerosis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8(6):969-977.

251. Koutsouraki E, Costa V, Baloyannis S. Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Europe: a review. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2010;22(1):2-13.

252. Bentzen J, Flachs EM, Stenager E, Bronnum-Hansen H, Koch-Henriksen N. Prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Denmark 1950–2005. Mult Scler. 2010;16(5):520-525.

253. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Multiple Sclerosis and Pregnancy. Available at https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/multiple-sclerosis-ms/multiple-sclerosis-and-pregnancy. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

254. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Pregnancy and Reproductive Issues. Available at https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Living-Well-With-MS/Diet-Exercise-Healthy-Behaviors/Womens-Health/Pregnancy. Last accessed December 2, 2022.

255. Devonshire V, Duquette P, Dwosh E, Guimond C, Sadovnik AD. The immune system and hormones: review and relevance to pregnancy and contraception in women with MS. Int MS J. 2003;10(2):61-66.

256. Confavreux C, Hutchinson M, Hours MM, Cortinovis-Tourniaire P, Moreau T. Rate of pregnancy-related relapse in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(5):283-291.

257. Zhu WH, Lu CZ, Huang YM, Link H, Xiao BG. A putative mechanism on remission of multiple sclerosis during pregnancy: estrogen-induced indoleamine 2;3-dioxygenase by dendritic cells. Mult Scler. 2007;13(1):33-40.

258. Kahler DJ and Mellor AR. T cell regulatory plasmacytoid dendritic cells expressing indoleamine 2;3 dioxygenase. Handbof Exp Pharmacol. 2009;188(III):165-196.

259. Nizri E, Irony-Tur-Sinai M, Grigoriadis N, Abramsky O, Amitai G, Brenner T. Novel approaches to treatment of autoimmune neuroinflammation and lessons for drug development. Pharmacology. 2007;79(1):42-49.

260. Fletcher SG, Castro-Borrero W, Remington G, Treadaway K, Lemack GE, Frohman EM. Sexual dysfunction in patients with multiple sclerosis: a multidisciplinary approach to evaluation and management. Nat Clin Pract Urol. 2009;6(2):96-107.

261. Tepavcevic DK, Kostic J, Basuroski ID, Stojsavljevic N, Pekmezovic T, Drulovic J. The impact of sexual dysfunction on the quality of life measured by MSQoL-54 in patients with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2008;14(8):1131-1136.

262. Dyment DA, Ebers GC, Sadovnick AD. Genetics of multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(2):104-110.

263. Sandberg-Wollheim M, Frank D, Goodwin TM, et al. Pregnancy outcomes during treatment with interferon beta-1a in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2005;65(6):802-806.

264. Boskovic R, Wide R, Wolpin J, Bauer DJ, Koren G. The reproductive effects of beta interferon therapy in pregnancy: a longitudinal cohort. Neurology. 2005;65(6):807-811.

265. De las Heras V, De Andres C, Tellez N, Tintore M. Pregnancy in multiple sclerosis patients treated with immunomodulators prior to or during part of the pregnancy: a descriptive study in the Spanish population. Mult Scler. 2007;13(8):981-984.

266. Langer-Gould AM. Pregnancy and family planning in multiple sclerosis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2019;25(3):773-792.

267. Kelly VM, Nelson LM, Chakravarty EF. Obstetric outcomes in women with multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. Neurology. 2009;73(22):1831-1836.

268. Dorotta IR, Schubert A. Multiple sclerosis and anesthetic implications. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2002;15(3):365-370.

269. Vercauteren M, Heytens L. Anesthetic considerations for patients with a pre-existing neurological deficit: are neuraxial techniques safe? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2007;51(7):831-838.

270. Bateman AM, Goldish GD. Autonomic dysreflexia in multiple sclerosis. J Spinal Cord Med. 2002;25(1):40-42.

271. Langer-Gould A, Gupta R, Huang S, et al. Interferon-gamma-producing T cells, pregnancy, and postpartum relapses of multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2010;67(1):51-57.

272. Vukusic S, Hutchinson M, Hours M, et al. Pregnancy and multiple sclerosis (the PRIMS study): clinical predictors of post-partum relapse. Brain. 2004;127(Pt 6):1353-1360.

273. Langer-Gould A, Huang SM, Gupta R, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding and the risk of postpartum relapses in women with multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(8):958-963.

274. Langer-Gould A, Smith JB, Albers KB, et al. Pregnancy-related relapses and breastfeeding in a contemporary multiple sclerosis cohort. Neurology. 2020;94(18):e1939-e1949.

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.