Works Cited

Agitation, Sedation, and Delirium in Adult ICU Patients

Course #90180 - $30 -

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

1. DeBiasi EM, Akgün KM, Pisani M. Awake or sedated: trends in the evaluation and management of agitation in the intensive care unit. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;36(6):899-913.

2. Bennett S, Hurford WE. When should sedation or neuromuscular blockade be used during mechanical ventilation? Respir Care. 2011;56(2):168-176; discussion 176-180.

3. Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(9):e825-e873.

4. Ely EW. The ABCDEF bundle: science and philosophy of how ICU liberation serves patients and families. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(2):321-330.

5. Brochard L. Less sedation in intensive care: the pendulum swings back. Lancet. 2010;375(9713):436-438.

6. Hughes CG, McGrane S, Pandharipande PP. Sedation in the intensive care setting. Clin Pharmacol. 2012;4:53-63.

7. Devabhakthuni S, Armahizer MJ, Dasta JF, Kane-Gill SL. Analgosedation: a paradigm shift in intensive care unit sedation practice. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(4):530-540.

8. International Association for the Study of Pain. IASP Terminology. Available at https://www.iasp-pain.org/Education/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1698. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

9. Barr J, Fraser GL, Puntillo K, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(1):263-306.

10. Rijkenberg S, Stilma W, Endeman H, et al. Pain measurement in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: behavioral pain scale versus critical-care pain observation tool. J Crit Care. 2015;30(1):167-172.

11. Gélinas C, Fillion L, Puntillo KA, et al. Validation of the critical-care pain observation tool in adult patients. Am J Crit Care. 2006;15(4):420-427.

12. Critical Illness, Brain Dysfunction, and Survivorship (CIBS) Center. Assess, Prevent and Manage Pain. Available at https://www.icudelirium.org/medical-professionals/assess-prevent-and-manage-pain. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

13. Stites M. Observational pain scales in critically ill adults. Crit Care Nurse. 2013;33(3):68-78.

14. Guillou N, Tanguy M, Seguin P, et al. The effects of small-dose ketamine on morphine consumption in surgical intensive care unit patients after major abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg. 2003;97(3):843-847.

15. Sheikh S, Hendry P. The expanding role of ketamine in the emergency department. Drugs. 2018;78(7):727-735.

16. Pourmand A, Mazer-Amirshahi M, Royall C, et al. Low dose ketamine use in the emergency department, a new direction in pain management. Am J Emerg Med. 2017;35(6):918-921.

17. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Intravenous Lidocaine for Pain Management. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. January 2018.

18. Elsevier Clinical Key. Available at https://www.clinicalkey.com. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

19. Swart LM, van der Zanden V, Spies PE, et al. The comparative risk of delirium with different opioids: a systematic review. Drugs Aging. 2017;34(6):437-443.

20. Society of Critical Care Medicine. Recommendations for alternative analgesic and sedation. Critical Connections. 2012;2.

21. Adams CD, Altshuler J, Barlow BL, et al. Analgesia and sedation strategies in mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19. Pharmacotherapy. 2020;40(12):1180-1191.

22. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Treatment of Constipation in Adults. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. April 2019.

23. TRC Healthcare. Professional Resource: Stepwise Approach to Acute Pain in Chronic Opioid Patients. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. December 2016.

24. Carullo V, Fitz-James I, Delphin E. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia: a diagnostic dilemma. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2015;29(4):378-384.

25. Lee M, Silverman SM, Hansen H, et al. A comprehensive review of opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Pain Physician. 2011;14(2):145-161.

26. Silverman SM. Opioid induced hyperalgesia: clinical implications for the pain practitioner. Pain Physician. 2009;12(3):679-684.

27. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Opioid Allergy. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. December 2022.

28. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Opioid Stewardship Checklist. Hospital Pharmacist's Letter/Pharmacy Technician's Letter. October 2020.

29. Pandharipande P, Hayhurst CJ. Pain Control in the Critically Ill Adult Patient. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pain-control-in-the-critically-ill-adult-patient. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

30. Strøm T, Toft P. Sedation and analgesia in mechanical ventilation. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35(4):441-450.

31. Miller MA, Bosk EA, Iwashyna TJ, Krein SL. Implementation challenges in the intensive care unit: the why, who, and how of daily interruption of sedation. J Crit Care. 2012;27(2):218.e1-e7.

32. Burry L, Rose L, McCullagh IJ, et al. Daily sedation interruption versus no daily sedation interruption for critically ill adult patients requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2014(7):CD009176.

33. Product information for Diprivan. Fresenius Kabi. Lake Zurich, IL. January 2020.

34. Hemphill S, McMenamin L, Bellamy MC, Hopkins PM. Propofol infusion syndrome: a structured literature review and analysis of published case reports. Br J Anaesth. 2019;122(4):448-459.

35. Chanques G, Constantin JM, Devlin JW, et al. Analgesia and sedation in patients with ARDS. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(12):2342-2356.

36. Product information for Precedex. Hospira, Lake Forest, IL. August 2022.

37. Canadian Pharmacists Association. Ottawa: Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2022. Available at http://www.e-therapeutics.ca. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

38. Product information for Ativan injection. Hikma Pharmaceuticals USA. Berkeley Heights, NJ. February 2021.

39. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Tapering Critical Care Analgesics and Sedatives. Hospital Pharmacist's Letter/Pharmacy Technician's Letter. March 2022.

40. Bouju P, Tadié JM, Barbarot N, et al. Clinical assessment and train-of-four measurements in critically ill patients treated with recommended doses of cisatracurium or atracurium for neuromuscular blockade: a prospective descriptive study. Ann Intensive Care. 2017;7(1):10.

41. TRC Healthcare. Clinical Resource: Neuromuscular Blocking Agents in Adult Patients. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. June 2022.

42. Szakmany T, Woodhouse T. Use of cisatracurium in critical care: a review of the literature. Minerva Anestesiol. 2015;81(4):450-460.

43. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Delirium: Prevention, Diagnosis and Management in Hospital and Long-Term Care. Available at https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg103. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

44. Khan BA, Zawahiri M, Campbell NL, et al. Delirium in hospitalized patients: implications of current evidence on clinical practice and future avenues for research: a systematic evidence review. J Hosp Med. 2012;7(7):580-589.

45. American Geriatrics Society. American Geriatrics Society abstracted clinical practice guideline for postoperative delirium in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63(1):142-150.

46. Ahmed S, Leurent B, Sampson EL. Risk factors for incident delirium among older people in acute hospital medical units: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2014;43(3):326-333.

47. Bassett R, Adams KM, Danesh V, et al. Rethinking critical care: decreasing sedation, increasing delirium monitoring, and increasing patient mobility. Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf. 2015;41(2):62-74.

48. Critical Illness, Brain Dysfunction, and Survivorship (CIBS) Center. Management of Delirium in the ICU. Available at https://www.icudelirium.org/medical-professionals/delirium/management-of-delirium-in-the-icu. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

49. Rothberg MB, Herzig SJ, Pekow PS, et al. Association between sedating medications and delirium in older inpatients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(6):923-930.

50. Canadian Coalition for Seniors' Mental Health. 2014 Guideline Update: The Assessment and Treatment of Delirium. Available at https://ccsmh.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/2014-ccsmh-Guideline-Update-Delirium.pdf. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

51. Girard TD, Exline MC, Carson SS, et al. Haloperidol and ziprasidone for treatment of delirium in critical illness. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(26):2506-2516.

52. Inouye SK, Westendorp RG, Saczynski JS. Delirium in elderly people. Lancet. 2014;383(9920):911-922.

53. Product information for Haldol. Janssen Pharmaceuticals. Titusville, NJ. November 2020.

54. Grindrod KA, Nagge J. Simplifying QT prolongation for busy clinicians. Can Fam Physician. 2019;65(4):268-270.

55. Tisdale JE. Drug-induced QT interval prolongation and torsades de pointes: role of the pharmacist in risk assessment, prevention and management. Can Pharm J (Ott). 2016;149(3):139-152.

56. Marshall J, Herzig SJ, Howell MD, et al. Antipsychotic utilization in the intensive care unit and in transitions of care. J Crit Care. 2016;33:119-124.

57. Rodríguez-Blanco J, Rodríguez-Yanez T, Rodríguez-Blanco JD, et al. Neuromuscular blocking agents in the intensive care unit. J Int Med Res. 2022;50(9):03000605221128148.

58. Brooks LA, Manias E, Bloomer MJ. How do intensive care clinicians ensure culturally sensitive care for family members at the end of life? A retrospective descriptive study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing. 2022;73:103303.

59. Engle AL, McFee Winans AR. Rethinking docusate's role in opioid-induced constipation: a critical analysis of the evidence. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2021;35(1):63-72.

60. Yang A, Lam T, Jierjian E, Walden SG, Coulson EE. An evaluation of docusate monotherapy and the prevention of opioid-induced constipation after surgery. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2022;36(1):18-23.

61. Tsai L-H, Lin J-W. A case report on elderly psychotic-like symptoms caused by antidepressant discontinuation. Annales Médico-Psychologiques. 2022;180(7):664-669.

62. Çalışkan AM, İnanlı I, Çalışkan S, Eren I. Delirium after pregabalin withdrawal. Alpha Psychiatry. 2021;22(2):118-119.

63. Phu PJJ, Looi JCL, Nair PC, Allison S, Chan SKW, Bastiampillai T. Psychosis related to baclofen withdrawal or overdose: a systematic review. East Asian Arch Psychiatry. 2023;33(1):3-14.

64. Martyn JA. Neuromuscular physiology and pharmacology. In: Miller RD (ed). Miller's Anesthesia. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2015: 423-443.

65. Haas RE, Darsey DA, Powell D. Neuromuscular blocking agents, reversal agents, and their monitoring. In: Nurse Anesthesia. 6th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2018: 162-195.

66. Lien C, Eikermann M. Neuromuscular blockers and reversal drugs. In: Hemmings HC, Egan TD (eds.) Physiology and Pharmacology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019: 325-348.

67. Naguib M. Sugammadex: another milestone in clinical neuromuscular pharmacology. Anesth Analg. 2007;104(3):575-581.

68. Hall J. Regulation of respiration. In: Hall JE, Guyton AC (eds). Guyton and Hall's Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, Inc.; 2016; 539-549.

69. Warr J, Thiboutot Z, Rose L, Mehta S, Burry LD. Current therapeutic uses, pharmacology, and clinical considerations of neuromuscular blocking agents for critically ill adults. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(9):1116-1126.

70. Yegneswaran B, Murugan R. Neuromuscular blockers and ARDS: thou shalt not breathe, move, or die! Crit Care. 2011;15(5):311.

71. Shehabi Y, Riker RR, Bokesch PM, et al. Delirium duration and mortality in lightly sedated, mechanically ventilated intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 2010;38(12):2311-2318.

72. Pandit L, Agrawal A. Neuromuscular disorders in critical illness. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2006;108(7):621-627.

73. Schefold JC, Bierbrauer J, Weber-Carstens S. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW) and muscle wasting in critically ill patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2010;1(2):147-157.

74. Ayonrinde O. Importance of cultural sensitivity in therapeutic transactions: considerations for healthcare providers. Dis Manage Health Outcomes. 2003;11(4):233-248.

75. Hwa-Froelich DA, Westby CE. Considerations when working with interpreters. Commun Disord Q. 2003;24(2):78-85.

76. National Council on Interpreting in Health Care, Inc. National Standards for Healthcare Interpreter Training Programs. Available at https://www.ncihc.org/assets/documents/publications/National_Standards_5-09-11.pdf. Last accessed January 22, 2024.

77. Lynch EW. Developing cross-cultural competence. In: Lynch EW, Hanson MJ (eds). A Guide for Working with Children and their Families: Developing Cross-Cultural Competence. 4th ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Co.; 2011: 41-78.

78. Tribe R. Working with interpreters in mental health. Int J Cult Ment Health. 2009;2(2):92-101.

79. Dysart-Gale D. Clinicians and medical interpreters: negotiating culturally appropriate care for patients with limited English ability.Fam Community Health. 2007;30(3):237-246.

80. Raval H, Smith J. Therapists' experiences of working with language interpreters. Int J Ment Health. 2003;32(2):6-31.

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.