Works Cited

Diabetes Pharmacology

Course #95325 - $60-

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

1. Blonde L, Umpierrez GE, Reddy S, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology clinical practice guidelines for developing a diabetes mellitus comprehensive care plan—2022 update. Endocr Pract. 2022;28(10):923-1049.

2. Edelman SV, Henry RR. Diagnosis and Management of Type 2 Diabetes. 11th ed. New York, NY: Professional Communications, Inc.; 2011.

3. Mensing C (ed). The Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 4th ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2017.

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

5. American Diabetes Association. Statistics About Diabetes. Available at https://diabetes.org/about-us/statistics/about-diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

6. Goldstein BJ, Müller-Wieland D (eds). Type 2 Diabetes: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2008.

7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National and State Diabetes Trends. Available at https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov/diabetes/library/reports/reportcard/national-state-diabetes-trends.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

8. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Symptoms and Causes of Diabetes. Available at https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/symptoms-causes?dkrd=hiscr0005. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes in Young People is on the Rise. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data-research/research/young-people-diabetes-on-rise.html?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/research/reports/children-diabetes-rates-rise.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

10. Colberg S, Friesz M. Diabetes-Free Kids: A Take-Charge Plan for Preventing and Treating Type 2 Diabetes in Children. New York, NY: Avery; 2005.

11. Khardori R. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117739-overview. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

12. Childs BP, Cypress M, Cypress M, Spollett G (eds). Complete Nurse's Guide to Diabetes Care. 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association; 2009.

13. American Association of Clinical Endocrinology consensus statement: Comprehensive Type 2 Diabetes Management Algorithm, 2023 Update. Available at https://www.endocrinepractice.org/article/S1530-891X(23)00034-4/fulltext. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes Basics. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/about/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/basics/index.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

15. Bardsley JK, Ratner RE. Pathophysiology of the metabolic disorder. In: Mensing C (ed). Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2014.

16. Kahn CR, Weir GC, King GL, Moses AC, Smith RJ, Jacobson AM. Joslin's Diabetes Mellitus. 14th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004.

17. Arbelaez AM, Powers WJ, Videen TO, Price JL, Cryer PE. Attenuation of counter regulatory responses to recurrent hypoglycemia by active thalamic inhibition: a mechanism for hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure. Diabetes. 2008;57(2):470-475.

18. Schneider CA, Erdman E. Acute coronary syndrome, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and stable coronary artery disease: specific consideration in diabetes. In: Goldstein BJ, Müller-Wieland D (eds). Type 2 Diabetes: Principles and Practices. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa; 2008: 463-474.

19. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP). Available at https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/research-areas/diabetes/diabetes-prevention-program-dpp?dkrd=prspt1922. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

20. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Safety. Rezulin (Troglitazone). Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112171602/http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm173081.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

21. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Symlin (Pramlintide Acetate): Label Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

22. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Blood Glucose Control Studies for Type 1 Diabetes: DCCT and EDIC. Available at https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/research-areas/diabetes/blood-glucose-control-studies-type-1-diabetes-dcct-edic. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

23. Cooppan RM. Rationale and goals for glucose control in diabetes mellitus and glucose monitoring. In: Goldstein BJ, Müller-Wieland D (eds). Type 2 Diabetes: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2008.

24. Skyler JS. Thirty years of diabetes care: reflections on the beginning. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(1):183-184.

25. UK Prospective Diabetes Study. Available at https://www.rdm.ox.ac.uk/about/our-facilities-and-units/DTU/completed-trials/ukpds. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

26. Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethal MA, Matthews DR, Neil AW. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(15):1577-1589.

27. Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J. The treat-to-target trial: randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(11):3080-3086.

28. Holman RR, Farmer AJ, Davies MJ, et al. Three-year efficacy of complex insulin regimens in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(18):1736-1747.

29. McMahon GT, Dluhy RG. Intention to treat: initiating insulin and the 4-T study. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(17):1759-1761.

30. ClinicalTrials.gov. The ORIGIN Trial (Outcome Reduction With Initial Glargine Intervention). Available at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00069784. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

31. Sanofi US News. Sanofi Announces Results of ORIGIN, the World's Longest and Largest Randomized Clinical Trial in Pre- and Early Diabetes. Available at https://www.news.sanofi.us/2012-06-11-Sanofi-Announces-Results-of-ORIGIN-the-Worlds-Longest-and-Largest-Randomized-Clinical-Trial-in-Pre-and-Early-Diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

32. Rosenstock J, Kahn SE, Johansen OE. Effect of linagliptin versus glimepiride on major adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: the CAROLINA randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;322(12):1155-1166.

33. American Diabetes Association. Gestational Diabetes. Available at https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/gestational-diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

34. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes—2025. Diabetes Care. 2025;48(Suppl 1):S1-S352.

35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes Risk Factors: Gestational Diabetes. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/risk-factors/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/basics/risk-factors.html#cdc_risk_factors_other_factor-gestational-diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

36. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Gestational Diabetes. Available at https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/gestational?dkrd=hiscr0003. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

37. Reader DM. Gestational diabetes. In: Mensing C (ed). Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2014.

38. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Diagnosis: A1C. Available at https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/diagnosis?loc=db-slabnav. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

39. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Sulfonylureas Drug. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/19828.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

40. Goroll AH, Mulley AG. Primary Care Medicine. Office Evaluation and Management of the Adult Patient. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2009.

41. LexiComp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com/lco/action/login. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

42. MedlinePlus. Chlorpropamide. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682479.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

43. RxList. Amaryl. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/amaryl-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

44. Diabetes Self-Management. Sulfonylureas. Available at https://www.diabetesselfmanagement.com/diabetes-resources/definitions/sulfonylureas/. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

45. Davis's Drug Guide. Acetohexamide. Available at https://www.drugguide.com/ddo/search?st=OSS&catcode=277&q=Acetohexamide. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

46. RxList. Glucotrol. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/glucotrol-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

47. Sisson E. AADE Quick Guide to Medications. 9th ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2019.

48. RxList. Micronase. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/micronase-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

49. Tzoulaki I, Molokhia M, Curcin V, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality among patients with type 2 diabetes prescribed oral antidiabetes drugs: retrospective cohort study using UK general practice research database. BMJ. 2009;339:b4731.

50. Pladevall M, Riera-Guardia N, Margulis AV, Varas-Lorenzo C, Calingaert B, Perez-Gutthann S. Cardiovascular risk associated with the use of glitazones, metformin and sulfonylureas: meta-analysis of published observational studies. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2016;16:14.

51. Jancin B. Four sulfonylureas tied to deaths in prior MI patients. Clin Endocrinol News. 2009;4(10):1-7.

52. Davidson JK. Clinical Diabetes Mellitus: A Problem-Oriented Approach. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Thieme; 2000.

53. Aquilante CL. Sulfonylurea pharmacogenomics in type 2 diabetes: the influence of drug target and diabetes risk polymorphisms.Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2010;8(3):359-372.

54. International Diabetes Federation. Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Non-Insulin Treated Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://www.sumai-napoli.it/upload/file/id-9-1256453820-self-monitoringofbloodglucoseinnon-insulintreatedtype2diabetesguideline.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

55. Comerford KC (ed). Nursing 2017 Drug Handbook. 37th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2016.

56. RxList. Januvia. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/januvia-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

57. RxList. Nateglinide. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/starlix-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

58. RxList. Prandin. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/prandin-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

59. RxList. Precose. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/precose-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

60. RxList. Glyset. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/glyset-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

61. Daily Med. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/index.cfm,. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

62. MedlinePlus. Metformin. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a696005.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

63. RxList. Glucophage, Glucophage XR. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/glucophage-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

64. Roumie CL, Chipman J, Min JY. Association of treatment with metformin versus sulfonylurea with major adverse cardiovascular events among patients with diabetes and reduced kidney function. JAMA. 2019;322(12):1167-1177.

65. Bristol-Meyers Squibb Company. Glucophase: Glucophage XR. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/020357s031,021202s016lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

66. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA Revises Warnings Regarding Use of the Diabetes Medicine Metformin in Certain Patients with Reduced Kidney Function. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-fda-revises-warnings-regarding-use-diabetes-medicine-metformin-certain. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

67. RxList. Actos. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/actos-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

68. Mensing C. The role of the diabetes educator in the education and management of diabetes mellitus. In: Goldstein BJ, Müller-Wieland D (eds). Type 2 Diabetes: Principles and Practices. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2008: 45-57.

69. RxList. Avandia. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/avandia-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

70. Seino Y, Fukushima M, Yabe D. GIP and GLP-1, the two incretin hormones: similarities and differences. J Diabetes Investigation. 2012;1(1-2):8-23.

71. Campbell JE, Drucker DJ. Pharmacology, physiology, and mechanisms of incretin hormone action. Cell Metabolism. 2013;17(6):819-837.

72. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves Three New Drug Treatments for Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023907/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm336942.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

73. Drugs.com. Zituvio FDA Approval History Abailable at https://www.drugs.com/history/zituvio.html#. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

74. Azurity Pharmaceuticals. Azurity Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Announces the Availability of BRYNOVIN (sitagliptin), the First and Only Oral Liquid Sitagliptin. Available at https://azurity.com/azurity-pharmaceuticals-inc-announces-the-availability-of-brynovin-sitagliptin-the-first-and-only-oral-liquid-sitagliptin/. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

75. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Safety Information. Sitagliptin (Marketed as Januvia and Janumet)—acute pancreatitis. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112165806/http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm183800.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

76. Singh S, Chang HY, Richards TM, Weiner JP, Clark JM, Segal JB. Glucagonlike peptide 1-based therapies and risk of hospitalization for acute pancreatitis in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a population-based matched case-control study. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(7):534-539.

77. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: FDA Drug Safety Podcast. FDA Investigating Reports of Possible Increased Risk of Pancreatitis and Pre-Cancerous Findings of the Pancreas from Incretin Mimetic Drugs for Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170722152428/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/DrugSafetyPodcasts/ucm344232.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

78. Freeman MK. Efficacy and safety of linagliptin (Tradjenta) in adults with type-2 diabetes mellitus. P T. 2011;36(12):807-812, 842.

79. Bristol-Myers Squibb. Saxagliptin: Highlights of Prescribing Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/022350s004lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

80. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA Adds Warnings About Heart Failure Risk to Labels of Type 2 Diabetes Medicines Containing Saxagliptin and Alogliptin. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-fda-adds-warnings-about-heart-failure-risk-labels-type-2-diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

81. Boehringer Ingelheim International. Tradjenta (Linagliptin): Highlights of Prescribing Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/201280lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

82. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Safety Information. Tradjenta (Linagliptin) Tablets: Warnings and Precautions. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170406125125/https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm319215.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

83. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves Invokana to Treat Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023858/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm345848.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

84. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves Farxiga to Treat Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023850/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm380829.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

85. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves Jardiance to Treat Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023827/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm407637.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

86. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: FDA Drug Safety Communication. FDA Warns That SGLT2 Inhibitors for Diabetes May Result in a Serious Condition of Too Much Acid in the Blood. Available at http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112031553/http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm446845.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

87. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA Revises Labels of SGLT2 Inhibitors for Diabetes to Include Warnings About Too Much Acid in the Blood and Serious Urinary Tract Infections. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-revises-labels-sglt2-inhibitors-diabetes-include-warnings-about-too-much-acid-blood-and-serious. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

88. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: FDA Drug Safety Communication. SGLT2 Inhibitors: Drug Safety Communication—Labels to Include Warnings About Too Much Acid in the Blood and Serious Urinary Tract Infections. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170406123608/https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm475553.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

89. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA Confirms Increased Risk of Leg and Foot Amputations With the Diabetes Medicine Canagliflozin (Invokana, Invokamet, Invokamet XR). Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-fda-confirms-increased-risk-leg-and-foot-amputations-diabetes-medicine#targetText=%5B%205%2D16%2D2017%20%5D,of%20leg%20and%20foot%20amputations. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

90. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: FDA Drug Safety Communication. Canagliflozin (Invokana, Invokamet) and Dapagliflozin (Farxiga, Xigduo XR): Drug Safety Communication—Strengthened Kidney Warnings. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20171105025100/https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm506554.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

91. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Removes Boxed Warning About Risk of Leg and Foot Amputations for the Diabetes Medicine Canagliflozin (Invokana, Invokamet, Invokamet XR). Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-removes-boxed-warning-about-risk-leg-and-foot-amputations-diabetes-medicine-canagliflozin. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

92. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Warns about Rare Occurrences of a Serious Infection of the Genital Area with SGLT2 Inhibitors for Diabetes. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-warns-about-rare-occurrences-serious-infection-genital-area-sglt2-inhibitors-diabetes. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

93. PR Newswire. FDA Approves Novel, Dual-Targeted Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/fda-approves-novel-dual-targeted-treatment-for-type-2-diabetes-301547265.html. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

94. Cheong C, Barner JC, Lawson KA, Johnsrud MT. Patient adherence and reimbursement amount for antidiabetic fixed-dose combination products compared with dual therapy among Texas Medicaid recipients. Clin Ther. 2008;30(10):1893-1907.

95. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NDA Approval: Xigduo XR. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2014/205649Orig1s000ltr.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

96. Walsh J, Roberts R. Letter to the editor: a study that glucose control can be achieved in 31 type 1 patients who follow a controlled diet and use an insulin pump that is programmed. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2007;1(4):L3-L6.

97. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves First Automated Insulin Delivery Device for Type 1 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170111083713/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm522974.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

98. Medtronic. MiniMed 770G System Discontinuation. Available at https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/products/minimed-770g-insulin-pump-system. last accessed November 3, 2025.

99. Medtronic. The MiniMed 770G System Discontinuation. Available at https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/products/minimed-770g-insulin-pump-system. last accessed November 3, 2025.

100. Medtronic. Minimed. Available at https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/products/minimed-780g-insulin-pump-system. last accessed November 3, 2025.

101. Tomky DM, Kulkarni K. Intensifying insulin therapy: multiple daily injections to pump therapy. In: Mensing C (ed). Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2014.

102. Taber's Online. Available at https://www.tabers.com/tabersonline. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

103. RxList. NovoLog. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/novolog-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

104. O'Keefe JH Jr, Bell DSH, Wyne KL, Haffner SM. Diabetes Essentials. 3rd ed. Royal Oak, MI: Physician's Press; 2007.

105. DailyMed. Afrezza. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=29f4637b-e204-425b-b89c-7238008d8c10. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

106. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA News Release: FDA Approves First Rapid-Acting Insulin Biosimilar Product for Treatment of Diabetes. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-rapid-acting-insulin-biosimilar-product-treatment-diabetes#. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

107. RxList. Humalog. Available at http://www.rxlist.com/humalog-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

108. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves Afrezza to Treat Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112222845/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm403122.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

109. RxList. Novolin R. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/novolin-r-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

110. Rea RS, Donihi-Calabrese D, Bobeck M, et al. Implementing an intravenous insulin infusion protocol in the intensive care unit. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2007;64(4):385-395.

111. Dilkhush D, Lannigan J, Pedroff T, Riddle A, Tittle M. Insulin infusion protocol for critical care units. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2005;62(21):2260-2264.

112. Joslin Diabetes. Ketone Testing. Available at https://www.joslin.org/patient-care/diabetes-education/diabetes-learning-center/ketone-testing-0. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

113. Hamdy O. Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/118361-overview. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

114. Rosenbloom AL. Hyperglycemic coma in children. In: Lifshitz F (ed). Pediatric Endocrinology Volume 1: Obesity, Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Resistance, and Hypoglycemia. 5th ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007: 155-168.

115. Gosmanov AR, Gosmanova EO, Kitabchi AE. Hyperglycemic crises: diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A (eds). Endotext. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000.

116. Umpierrez GE, Davis GM, ElSayed NA, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adults with diabetes: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(8):1257-1275.

117. Arnold MS, Trence DL. Hyperglycemia. In: Mensing C (ed). Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2014.

118. Trachtenbarg DE. Diabetic ketoacidosis. Am Fam Phys. 2005;71(9):1705-1714.

119. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, Kreisburg RA. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(8):1257-1275.

120. MedlinePlus. Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000320.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

121. Avichal D. Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1914705-overview. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

122. Nugent BW. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2005;23(3):629-648.

123. Joslin Diabetes. Advice For When You Are Sick. Available at https://www.joslin.org/patient-care/diabetes-education/diabetes-learning-center/advice-when-you-are-sick. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

124. RxList. Humulin N. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/humulin-n-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

125. American Pharmacists Association. FDA Approves First Interchangeable Biosimilar Insulin. Available at https://www.pharmacist.com/Blogs/CEO-Blog/fda-approves-first-interchangeable-biosimilar-insulin#. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

126. RxList. Levemir. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/levemir-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

127. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Drug Approval Package. Levemir Insulin Detemir (rDNA Origin) Injection. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2005/021-536_LevemirTOC.cfm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

128. UPI. FDA Issues Advisory for Levemir Insulin. Available at https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2009/06/15/FDA-issues-advisory-for-Levemir-insulin/39691245094501/. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

129. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Levemir: Label Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2022/021536s060lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

130. Cryer PE. Hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetes. In: Goldstein BJ, Müller-Wieland D (eds). Type 2 Diabetes Principles and Practices. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa; 2008: 227-236.

131. Bethel MA, Feinglos MN. Basil insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes. J Am Board Fam Med. 2005;18(3):199-204.

132. Steil CF. Pharmacological therapies for glucose management. In: Mensing C (ed). Art and Science of Diabetes Self-Management Education: Desk Reference. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2014.

133. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Humalog. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2025/020563s214,205747s038lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

134. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Supplement Approval: Humalog (Insulin Lispro) Injection. Available https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2025/020563Orig1s214;%20205747Orig1s038ltr.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

135. Global RxPh. Combination Insulins. Available at https://globalrph.com/drugs/combination-insulins/#combination-insulins. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

136. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NDA 21-773: Byetta. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2005/021773ltr.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

137. RxList. Byetta. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/byetta-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

138. Raman VS, Mason KJ, Rodriguez LM, et al. The role of adjunctive exenatide therapy in pediatric type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(6):1294-1296.

139. RX Insider. Amneal Launches GLP-1 Agonist Exenatide Injection. Available at https://rxinsider.com/market-buzz/21169-amneal-launches-glp-1-agonist-exenatide-injectionandnbsp/#. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

140. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Questions and Answers: Safety Requirements for Victoza (Liraglutide). Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/questions-and-answers-safety-requirements-victoza-liraglutide. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

141. Raun K, von Voss P, Gotfredsen CF, Golozoubova V, Rolin B, Bjerre Knudsen L. Liraglutide, a long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 analog, reduces body weight and food intake in obese candy-fed rats, whereas a dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor, vildagliptin, does not. Diabetes. 2007;56(1):8-15.

142. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: Press Release. FDA Approves New Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112024032/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm253501.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

143. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archive: News Release. FDA Approves Trulicity to Treat Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112023822/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm415180.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

144. U.S. Pharmacist. FDA Approves First Oral GLP-1 Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes. Available at https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/fda-approves-first-oral-glp1-for-use-in-type-2-diabetes#. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

145. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Update on FDA's Ongoing Evaluation of Reports of Suicidal Thoughts or Actions in Patients Taking a Certain Type of Medicines Approved for Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/update-fdas-ongoing-evaluation-reports-suicidal-thoughts-or-actions-patients-taking-certain-type. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

146. Karl D, Philis-Tsimikas A, Darsow T, et al. Pramlintide as an adjunct to insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes in a clinical practice setting reduced A1C, postprandial glucose excursions, and weight. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2007;9(2):191-199.

147. RxList. Symlin. Available at https://www.rxlist.com/symlin-drug.htm. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

148. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Drug That Can Delay Onset of Type 1 Diabetes. Available at https://www.fda.gov/media/164864/download. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

149. Mayo Clinic. Hypoglycemia: Symptoms. Available at https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypoglycemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20373685. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

150. Down S, Kirkland F. Injection technique in insulin therapy. Nurs Times. 2012;108(10):18-21.

151. Drugs@FDA. Novolin 70/30. Label information. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Web site. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

152. Lantus. Highlights of Prescribing Information. Instructions for Use. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/021081s078s079lbl.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

153. Kulkarni K. Diets do not fail: the success of medical nutrition therapy in patients with diabetes. Endocr Pract. 2006;12(Suppl 1):121-123.

154. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Take Charge of Your Diabetes. 4th ed. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2007.

155. Zinman B, Ruderman N, Campaigne BN, Devlin JT, Schneider SH. Diabetes Mellitus and Exercise. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/717051. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

156. Wasserman DH, Zinman B. Exercise in individuals with IDDM. Diabetes Care. 1994;17(8):924-937.

157. Dubé M-C, Weisnagel SJ, Prud'homme D, Lavoie C. Exercise and newer insulins: how much glucose supplement to avoid hypoglycemia? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(8):1276-1282.

158. Francescato MP, Geat M, Fusi S, Stupar G, Noacco C, Cattin L. Carbohydrate requirement and insulin concentration during moderate exercise in type 1 diabetic patients. Metabolism. 2004;53(9):1126–1130.

159. Nagi D (ed). Exercise and Sport in Diabetes. 2nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd; 2005.

160. Younk LM, Mikeladze M, Tate D, Davis SN. Exercise-related hypoglycemia in diabetes mellitus. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2011;6(1):93-108.

161. Joslin Diabetes. Joslin Diabetes Center's Clinical Guideline for Management of Adults with Diabetes: 2020. Available at https://joslin.org/-/media/files/joslin/joslin-clinical-guidelines-for-management-of-adults-with-diabetes.pdf. Last accessed November 3, 2025.

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.