Works Cited

Structural Racism and Bias: Impact on Patients and Care

Course #97390 - $15-

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  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

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7. Gee GC, Ford CL. Structural racism and health inequities. Du Bois Rev. 2011;8(1):115-132.

8. Yearby R. Structural racism and health disparities: reconfiguring the social determinants of health framework to include the root cause. J Law Med Ethics. 2020;48(3):518-526.

9. Vyas DA, Eisenstein LE, Jones DS. Hidden in plain sight: reconsidering the use of race correction in clinical algorithms. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(9):874-882.

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11. Reverby SM. Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and Its Legacy. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press; 2009.

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13. American Medical Association. AMA Organizational Strategic Plan to Advance Health Equity: 2024–2025. Available at https://www.ama-assn.org/about/leadership/ama-s-2024-2025-strategic-plan-advance-health-equity. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

14. Rothstein R. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York, NY: Liveright Publishing; 2017.

15. Nardone A, Casey JA, Morello-Frosch R, Mujahid M, Balmes JR, Thakur N. Associations between historical residential redlining and current age-adjusted rates of emergency department visits due to asthma across eight cities in California. Lancet Planet Health. 2020;4(1):e24-e31.

16. Darling-Hammond L. Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. Available at https://www.brookings.edu/articles/unequal-opportunity-race-and-education. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

17. Bhutta N, Chang AC, Dettling LJ, Hsu JW. Disparities in Wealth by Race and Ethnicity in the 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances. Available at https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/disparities-in-wealth-by-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-2019-survey-of-consumer-finances-20200928.html. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

18. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Healthy People 2030: Social Determinants of Health. Available at https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

19. Artiga S, Hinton E. Beyond Health Care: The Role of Social Determinants in Promoting Health and Health Equity. Available at https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/beyond-health-care-the-role-of-social-determinants-in-promoting-health-and-health-equity. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html. Last accessed August 19, 2026.

21. Petersen EE, Davis NL, Goodman D, et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in pregnancy-related deaths—United States, 2007–2016. MMWR. 2019;68(35):762-765.

22. Geronimus AT, Hicken M, Keene D, Bound J. "Weathering" and age patterns of allostatic load scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2006;96(5):826-833.

23. Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, et al. Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(9): e0138511.

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27. Doubeni CA, Simon M, Krist AH. Addressing systemic racism through clinical preventive service recommendations from the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2021;325(7):627-628.

28. Inker LA, Eneanya ND, Coresh J, et al. New creatinine- and cystatin C-based equations to estimate GFR without race. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(19):1737-1749.

29. Marrast LM, Zallman L, Woolhandler S, Bor DH, McCormick D. Minority physicians' role in the care of underserved patients: diversifying the physician workforce may be key in addressing health disparities. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(2):289-291.

30. Kendi IX. How to Be an Antiracist. New York, NY: One World; 2019.

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35. Churchwell K, Elkind MSV, Benjamin RM, et al. Call to action: structural racism as a fundamental driver of health disparities: a presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;142(24):e454-e468.

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  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.