Works Cited

Understanding Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction

Course #30100 - $30-

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

1. Baddeley A. Working memory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1983;302(1110):311-324.

2. Baum C, Connor L, Morrison T, Hahn M, Dromerick A, Edwards D. Reliability, validity, and clinical utility of the Executive Function Performance Test: a measure of executive function in a sample of people with stroke. Am J Occup Ther. 2008;62:446-455.

3. Hahn B, Baum C, Moore J, et al. Development of additional tasks for the executive function performance test. Am J Occup Ther. 2014;68(6):e241-e246.

4. Okutemo J, Nakamura M. Executive functions are better than IQ? Perspective. 2019;2(1):1-2.

5. Gibb J, Audert M, Hayley S, Anisman H. Neurochemical and behavioral responses to inflammatory immune stressors. Front Biosci. 2009;14:275-295.

6. Juby A, Tench S, Baker V. The value of clock drawing in identifying executive cognitive dysfunction in people with a normal mini-mental state examination score. CMAJ. 2002;167(8):859-864.

7. Van Heugten CM, Walton L, Hentschel U. Can we forget the Mini-Mental State Examination? A systematic review of the validity of cognitive screening instruments within one month after stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2015;29(7):694-704.

8. Van Patten R, Britton K, Tremont G. Comparing the Mini-Mental State Examination and the modified Mini-Mental State Examination in the detection of mild cognitive impairment in older adults. Int Psychogeriatr. 2019;31(5):693-701.

9. McEwen BS, Nasca C, Gray JD. Stress effects on neuronal structure: hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(1):3-23.

10. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. "Mini-mental state:" a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12:189-198.

11. Trzepacz PT, Hochstetler H, Wang S, Walker B, Saykin AJ, Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Relationship between the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-mental State Examination for assessment of mild cognitive impairment in older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:107.

12. Hall JE (ed). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 2015.

13. Calvey N, Williams N. Inhalational anesthetic agents. In: Calvey N, Williams N (eds). Principles and Practice of Pharmacology for Anaesthetists. 5th ed. New York, NY: Blackwell; 2008: 129-148.

14. Campagna JA, Miller KW, Forman SA. Mechanisms of inhaled anesthetics. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(21):2110-2124.

15. Frost EA. A review of the mechanisms of inhalational anesthetic agents. In: Kaye AD, Kaye AM, Urman RD (eds). Essentials of Pharmacology for Anesthesia, Pain Medicine, and Critical Care. New York, NY: Springer; 2015: 49-60.

16. Hameroff S. The brain is both neurocomputer and quantum computer. Cogn Sci. 2007;31:1035-1045.

17. Hirsch D, Fox CJ, Kaye AD. Anesthetic induction agents. In: Kaye AD, Kaye AM, Urman RD (eds). Essentials of Pharmacology for Anesthesia, Pain Medicine, and Critical Care. New York, NY: Springer; 2015: 103-112.

18. Lovinger DM. Neurons, Receptors, Neurotransmitters, and Alcohol. Available at https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh313/196-214.htm. Last accessed February 25, 2026.

19. Brechmann T, Maier C, Kaisler M, et al. Propofol sedation during gastrointestinal endoscopy arouses euphoria in a large subset of patients. United European Gastroenterol J. 2018;6(4):536-546.

20. Abdallah CG, Averill LA, Collins KA, et al. Ketamine treatment and global brain connectivity in major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2017;42(6):1210-1219.

21. Liriano F, Hatten C, Schwartz TL. Ketamine as treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder: a review. Drugs Context. 2019;8:212305.

22. Herold KF, Sanford RL, Lee W, Andersen OS, Hemmings HC Jr. Clinical concentrations of chemically diverse general anesthetics minimally affect lipid bilayer properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017;114(12):3109-3114.

23. Iqbal F, Thompson AJ, Riaz S, Pehar M, Rice T, Syed NI. Anesthetics: from modes of action to unconsciousness and neurotoxicity.J Neurophysiol. 2019;122(2):760-787.

24. Bayliss DA, Czirják G, Enyedi P, et al. Two P domain potassium channels (version 2019.4) in the IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology Database. IUPHAR/BPS/Guide/to/Pharmacology/CITE. 2019;2019(4).

25. Barber AF, Carnevale V, Klein ML, Eckenhoff RG, Covarrubias M. Modulation of a voltage-gated Na+ channel by sevoflurane involves multiple sites and distinct mechanisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014;111(18):6726-6731.

26. Baer K, Waldvogel H, Faull R, Rees M. Localisation of glycine receptors in the human forebrain, brainstem, and cervical spinal cord: an immunohistochemical review. Front Mol Neurosci. 2009;2:25.

27. Mackensen GB, Gelb AW. Postoperative cognitive deficits: more questions than answers. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2004;21(2):85-88.

28. Juolasmaa A, Outakoski J, Hirvenoja R, Tienari P, Sotaniemi K, Takkunen J. Effect of open heart surgery on intellectual performance.J Clin Neuropsychol. 1981;3(3):181-197.

29. Tuman KJ, McCarthy RJ, Najafi H, Ivankovich AD. Differential effects of advanced age on neurologic and cardiac risks of coronary artery operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1992;104(6):1510-1517.

30. Guedel AE. Anesthesia: a teaching outline. Anesth Analg. 1936:55-62.

31. Morse RM, Lain EM. Postoperative delirium: a study of etiologic factors. AORN J. 1969;10(5):85-92.

32. Mashour GA, Woodrum DT, Avidan MS. Neurological complications of surgery and anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2015;114(2):194-203.

33. Saniova B, Drobny M, Sulaj M. Delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction after general anesthesia. Med Sci Monit. 2009;15:81-87.

34. Huang C, Martensson J, Gogenur I, Asghar MS. Exploring postoperative cognitive dysfunction and delirium in noncardiac surgery using MRI: a systematic review. Neural Plast. 2018;2018:1281657.

35. Robinson TN, Raeburn CD, Tran ZV, Angles EM, Brenner LA, Moss M. Postoperative delirium in the elderly: risk factors and outcomes. Ann Surg. 2009;249(1):173-178.

36. Robinson TN, Wu DS, Pointer LF, Dunn CL, Moss M. Preoperative cognitive dysfunction is related to adverse postoperative outcomes in the elderly. J Am Coll Surg. 2012;215(1):12-17.

37. Silbert BS, Evered LA, Scott DA, et al. Pre-existing cognitive impairment is associated with postoperative cognitive dysfunction after hip joint replacement surgery. Anesthesiology. 2015;122:1224-1234.

38. Selim M. Perioperative stroke. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(7):706-713.

39. Wong GY, Warner DO, Schroeder DR, Offord KP, Warner MA, Maxson PM, Whisnant JP. Risk of surgery and anesthesia for ischemic stroke. Anesthesiology. 2000;92(2):425.

40. Bateman BT, Schumacher HC, Wang S, Shaefi S, Berman MF. Perioperative acute ischemic stroke in noncardiac and nonvascular surgery: incidence, risk factors, and outcomes. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(2):231-238.

41. Seymour DG, Severn AM. Cognitive dysfunction after surgery and anaesthesia: what can we tell the grandparents? Age Ageing. 2009;38(2):147-150.

42. Kimball CP. The experience of open heart surgery. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1972;27:57-63.

43. Patel N, Minhas JS, Chung EM. Risk factors associated with cognitive decline after cardiac surgery: a systematic review. Cardiovasc Psychiatry Neurol. 2015;2015:370612.

44. Rudolph JL, Schreiber KA, Culley DJ, McGlinchey RE, Crosby G, Levitsky S, Marcantonio ER. Measurement of post-operative cognitive dysfunction after cardiac surgery: a systematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010;54(6):663-677.

45. Ghaffary S, Talasaz AH, Ghaeli P, et al. Association between perioperative parameters and cognitive impairment in post-cardiac surgery patients. J Teh Univ Heart Ctr. 2014;10(2):85-92.

46. de Tournay-Jette E, Dupuis G, Bherer L, Deschamps A, Cartier R, Denault A. The relationship between cerebral oxygen saturation changes and postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2011;25(1):95-104.

47. Hong SW, Shim JK, Choi YS, Kim DH, Chang BC, Kwak YL. Prediction of cognitive dysfunction and patients' outcome following valvular heart surgery and the role of cerebral oximetry. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2008;33(4):560-565.

48. Kozora E, Kongs S, Collins JF, et al. Cognitive outcomes after on- versus off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;90(4):1134-1141.

49. Evered LA, Silbert BS, Scott DA, Maruff P, Ames D. Prevalence of dementia 7.5 years after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Anesthesiology. 2016;125(1):62-71.

50. Zywiel MG, Prabhu A, Perruccio AV, Gandhi R. The influence of anesthesia and pain management on cognitive dysfunction after joint arthroplasty: a systematic review. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014;472(5):1453-1466.

51. Krenk L, Kehlet H, Baek Hansen T, Solgaard S, Soballe K, Rasmussen LS. Cognitive dysfunction after fast-track hip and knee replacement. Anesth Analg. 2014;118(5):1034-1040.

52. Zhu SH, Ji MH, Gao DP, Li WY, Yang JJ. Association between perioperative blood transfusion and early postoperative cognitive dysfunction in aged patients following total hip replacement surgery. Ups J Med Sci. 2014;119(3):262-267.

53. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. "Mini-mental state:" a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12:189-198.

54. Ji MH, Shen JC, Gao R, et al. Early postoperative cognitive dysfunction is associated with higher cortisol levels in aged patients following hip fracture surgery. J Anesth. 2013;27(6):942-944.

55. Shi H, Xue X, Wang Y, Zhang W, Wang ZS, Yu A. Effects of different anesthesia methods on cognitive dysfunction after hip replacement operations in elder patients. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2015;8:3883-3888.

56. Wu Z, Zhang M, Zhang Z, Dong W, Wang Q, Ren J. Ratio of beta-amyloid protein (Aβ) and tau predicts the postoperative cognitive dysfunction on patients undergoing total hip/knee replacement surgery. Exp Ther Med. 2018;15(1):878-884.

57. Canet J, Raeder J, Rasmussen LS, et al. Cognitive dysfunction after minor surgery in the elderly. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47:1204-1210.

58. Monk TG, Weldon BC, Garvan CW, Dede DE, van der Aa MT, Gravenstein JS. Predictors of cognitive dysfunction after major noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 2008;103:18-30.

59. Li Y, He R, Chen S, Qu Y. Effect of dexmedetomidine on early postoperative cognitive dysfunction and peri-operative inflammation in elderly patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Exp Ther Med. 2015;10(5):1635-1642.

60. Rossman AC. The physiology of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and its importance in the administration of anesthesia. AANA J. 2011;79(5):433-440.

61. Fong HK, Sands LP, Leung JM. The role of postoperative analgesia in delirium and cognitive decline in elderly patients: a systematic review. Anesth Analg. 2006;102(4):1255-1266.

62. Raz A, Perouansky M. Central nervous system physiology: neurophysiology. In: Hemmings HC Jr, Egan TD (eds). Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia. 2nd ed. Saunders; 2019: 145-169.

63. O'Brien H, Mohan H, Hare CO, Reynolds JV, Kenny RA. Mind over matter? The hidden epidemic of cognitive dysfunction in the older surgical patient. Ann Surg. 2017;265(4):677-691.

64. Forman SA, Chiara DC, Miller KW. Anesthetics target interfacial transmembrane sites in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Neuropharmacology. 2015;96(pt B):169-177.

65. Scott DA, Evered LA, Silbert BS. Cardiac surgery, the brain, and inflammation. J Extra Corpor Technol. 2014;46:15-22.

66. van Harten AE, Scheeren TWL, Absalom AR. A review of postoperative cognitive dysfunction and neuroinflammation associated with cardiac surgery and anaesthesia. Anaesthesia. 2012;67(3):280-293.

67. Han Y, Han L, Dong MM, et al. Preoperative salivary cortisol AM/PM ratio predicts early postoperative cognitive dysfunction after noncardiac surgery in elderly patients. Anesth Analg. 2019;128(2):349-357.

68. Perouansky M, Pearce RA. How we recall (or don't): the hippocampal memory machine and anesthetic amnesia. Can J Anaesth. 2011;58(2):157-166.

69. Rundshagen I. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2014;111(8):119-125.

70. Ebert T. Autonomic nervous system pharmacology. In: Hemmings HC Jr, Egan TD (eds). Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia. 2nd ed. Elsevier; 2019: 282-299.

71. Langford R, Joshi GP, Gan TJ, et al. Reduction in opioid-related adverse events and improvement in function with parecoxib followed by valdecoxib after noncardiac surgery. Clin Drug Investig. 2009;29(9):577-590.

72. Chen K, Wei P, Zheng Q, Zhou J, Li J. Neuroprotective effects of intravenous lidocaine on early postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients following spine surgery. Med Sci Monit. 2015;21:1402-1407.

73. Wu C, Gao B, Gui Y. Malondialdehyde on postoperative day 1 predicts postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients after hip fracture surgery. Biosci Rep. 2019;39(6).

74. Dijkstra J, Jolles J. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction versus complaints: a discrepancy in long-term findings. Neuropsychol Rev. 2002;12(1):1-14.

75. Steinmetz J, Christensen KB, Lund T, Lohse N, Rasmussen LS. Long-term consequences of postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(3):548-555.

76. Gao L, Taha R, Gauvin D, Othmen LB, Wang Y, Blaise G. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction after cardiac surgery. Chest. 2005;128(5):3664-3670.

77. Jungwirth B, Zieglgansberger W, Kochs EF, Rammes G. Anesthesia and postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2009;9:1568-1579.

78. Morandi A, Hughes CG, Girard TD, McAuley DF, Ely EW, Pandharipande PP. Statins and brain dysfunction: a hypothesis to reduce the burden of cognitive impairment in patients who are critically ill. Chest. 2011;140(3):580-585.

79. Katznelson R, Djaiani G, Borger MA, et al. Preoperative use of statins is associated with reduced early delirium rates after cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 2009;110:67-73.

80. Kim SW, Kang HJ, Jhon M, et al. Statins and inflammation: new therapeutic opportunities in psychiatry. Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:103.

81. Hudetz JA, Iqbal Z, Gandhi SD, Patterson KM, Byrne AJ, Hudetz AG, et al. Ketamine attenuates post-operative cognitive dysfunction after cardiac surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2009;53(7):864-872.

82. Feng PP, Deng P, Liu LH, Ai Q, Yin J, Liu Z, Wang GM. Electroacupuncture alleviates postoperative cognitive dysfunction in aged rats by inhibiting hippocampal neuroinflammation activated via microglia/TLRs pathway. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017;2017:6421260.

83. Carpenter JK, Andrews LA, Witcraft SM, Powers MB, Smits JAJ, Hofmann SG. Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety and related disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Depress Anxiety. 2018;35(6):502-514.

84. Hofmann SG, Asmundson GJG, Beck AT. The science of cognitive therapy. Behav Ther. 2013;44(2):199-212.

85. Hamblin MR. Shining light on the head: photobiomodulation for brain disorders. BBA Clin. 2016;6:113-124.

86. Liebert AD, Chow RT, Bicknell BT, Varigos E. Neuroprotective effects against POCD by photobiomodulation: evidence from assembly/disassembly of the cytoskeleton. J Exp Neurosci. 2016;10:1-19.

  • Back to Course Home
  • Participation Instructions
    • Review the course material online or in print.
    • Complete the course evaluation.
    • Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion. Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.