The United Nations defines human trafficking as [1]:

The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude, or the removal of organs.

In essence, this definition involves three elements: force, coercion, and fraud [2]. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime divides the definition of human trafficking into three sections: the act, means, and purpose [3]. The act, or what is done, generally refers to activities such as recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons. The means of trafficking consists of threats or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or vulnerability, or giving payments or benefits to a person in control of the victim. Finally, these acts are carried out for the purpose of exploitation, which includes prostitution, sexual exploitation, forced labor, slavery or forced servitude, and the removal of organs [3].

When evaluating a possible case of human trafficking, the clinical question is not "Can the patient prove trafficking?" but "Are there safety, coercion, injury, or control indicators that warrant private assessment, support, and referral?" [7].

Trafficking risk is shaped by vulnerability, unmet needs, isolation, coercion, and power imbalance rather than by a single demographic trait. Factors that can increase vulnerability include homelessness or housing instability, runaway status, child welfare or juvenile justice involvement, prior abuse, family violence, poverty, unstable immigration status, limited English proficiency, disability, social isolation, substance use, and disconnection from stable support networks. Members of stigmatized groups, including LGBTQ+ youth and people with disabilities, may experience elevated vulnerability because discrimination, family rejection, barriers to services, and economic insecurity can be exploited by traffickers; the risk is produced by social conditions, not by identity itself [7,8].

Labor trafficking vulnerabilities often involve recruitment for promised work that becomes unsafe, underpaid, unpaid, debt-controlled, or impossible to leave. Examples include agriculture, restaurants, domestic work, hospitality, factories, health/beauty services, construction, traveling sales, caregiving, and other service industries. Traffickers may exploit debt, immigration fears, threats to family, confiscated identification, dependency, substance use, or lack of transportation and documentation [7,9].

In studies of trafficked persons, headaches, fatigue, dizziness, back pain, pelvic pain, stomach pain, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unwanted pregnancies, and gynecologic infections were common, generally the result of continual physical, psychological, and sexual abuse [10] [11]. Victims of labor trafficking also experience health issues related to the type of work, workplace conditions, malnutrition, and violence [12]. It is important to remember that some of these somatic complaints, such as headaches, fatigue, and gastrointestinal problems, may be underlying symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress [11]. Some cultural groups might not use the terms "depression," "sad," or "anxious," but may use metaphors and somatic symptoms to describe their pain, all of which are embedded within cultural ideologies. The most common culture-based idioms of distress are somatic symptoms. Some groups tend not to psychologize emotional problems; instead, they experience psychological conflicts as bodily sensations (e.g., headaches, bodily aches, gastrointestinal problems, and dizziness).

Victims may present with dental trauma and loss of teeth from violent acts. Injuries to the face and mouth area are common in abuse cases, and the potential for tooth involvement is high. Other dental problems arise as well, including infectious complications due to HIV, and even oral cancers or gingival disease due to substance use or poor access to dental care [15].

Trauma-informed assessment emphasizes privacy, choice, transparency, and safety. Before sensitive questions, the clinician should assess whether questioning could increase danger, seek a private setting, use a professional interpreter unrelated to the patient or companion, explain confidentiality and mandatory-reporting limits, and avoid making disclosure the goal of the encounter. HEAL Trafficking's PEARR framework describes a patient-centered conversation guide, not a rigid screening checklist, and emphasizes survivor agency and autonomy [7,24]:

Trauma-informed assessment emphasizes privacy, choice, transparency, and safety. Before sensitive questions, the clinician should assess whether questioning could increase danger, seek a private setting, use a professional interpreter unrelated to the patient or companion, explain confidentiality and mandatory-reporting limits, and avoid making disclosure the goal of the encounter. HEAL Trafficking's PEARR framework describes a patient-centered conversation guide, not a rigid screening checklist, and emphasizes survivor agency and autonomy [7,24]:

The immediate clinical priorities are medical stabilization, safety assessment, behavioral health support, and connection to options. A victim-centered response recognizes that not all patients will disclose, accept services, contact law enforcement, or leave the situation during the encounter. Clinicians should avoid coercive "rescue" attempts, avoid confronting a suspected trafficker, and avoid making promises that cannot be kept; instead, the team should create privacy, explain choices, offer resources, and coordinate with trained social work, advocacy, child protection, adult protection, forensic nursing, behavioral health, security, and legal/risk teams, as indicated [7,24].

Reporting depends on age, capacity, setting, injury type, state law, and whether the patient is a child or vulnerable adult (Table 1). If screening indicate that an individual may be a victim of human trafficking, one should contact the National Human Trafficking Hotline at 1-888-373-7888; hotline staff may report situations involving a harmed person 17 years of age or younger or anyone in immediate danger when identifying information is shared. HIPAA permits disclosure without authorization when required by law and permits certain disclosures for public health, child abuse/neglect, abuse/neglect/domestic violence, law enforcement, and serious threats, subject to regulatory conditions [25].